nam 22 uu 4500 10.59704/27e6eeaa45aec951 DE-Verfassungsblog cr||||| 260306s2026||||xx#|||||o|||| ||| 0|eng|| 10.59704/27e6eeaa45aec951 doi eng 342 23 Katsoni, Spyridoula Author aut From Directness to Foreseeability - On the CJEU’s Causal Inquiry in Overdetermined Refoulement Katsoni, Spyridoula Verfassungsblog 2026-03-06 Text txt rdacontent Computermedien c rdamedia Online-Ressource cr rdacarrier On 18.12.2025, the CJEU issued its judgment on the appeal against the General Court’s Order in W.S. and Others v Frontex. The judgment is uniquely important as the CJEU deviated from the academics’ view that the causal inquiry shall be conducted in two steps and used instead the causal test of directness. Given that adjudicating fora is increasingly relying on the test of foreseeability, the CJEU should implement this method where Frontex and the EU Member States are involved in refoulement-related damage. CC BY-SA 4.0 CJEU EU Frontex W.S. and Others v Frontex foreseeability refoulement the causal test of directness (DE-588)10290611-7 gnd EU Max Steinbeis Verfassungsblog gGmbH Verfassungsblog 2366-7044 https://verfassungsblog.de/from-directness-to-foreseeability/ raw object