From Directness to Foreseeability - On the CJEU’s Causal Inquiry in Overdetermined Refoulement Katsoni, Spyridoula Author aut Text xx# 2026 Verfassungsblog 2026-03-06 eng
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 On 18.12.2025, the CJEU issued its judgment on the appeal against the General Court’s Order in W.S. and Others v Frontex. The judgment is uniquely important as the CJEU deviated from the academics’ view that the causal inquiry shall be conducted in two steps and used instead the causal test of directness. Given that adjudicating fora is increasingly relying on the test of foreseeability, the CJEU should implement this method where Frontex and the EU Member States are involved in refoulement-related damage. CC BY-SA 4.0 Katsoni, Spyridoula CJEU EU Frontex W.S. and Others v Frontex foreseeability refoulement the causal test of directness EU 342 https://verfassungsblog.de/from-directness-to-foreseeability/ Verfassungsblog 2366-7044 Max Steinbeis Verfassungsblog gGmbH 10.59704/27e6eeaa45aec951 260306 10.59704/27e6eeaa45aec951 Converted from MARCXML to MODS version 3.7 using MARC21slim2MODS3-7.xsl (Revision 1.140 20200717)