06 March 2026
From Directness to Foreseeability
On 18.12.2025, the CJEU issued its judgment on the appeal against the General Court’s Order in W.S. and Others v Frontex. The judgment is uniquely important as the CJEU deviated from the academics’ view that the causal inquiry shall be conducted in two steps and used instead the causal test of directness. Given that adjudicating fora is increasingly relying on the test of foreseeability, the CJEU should implement this method where Frontex and the EU Member States are involved in refoulement-related damage. Continue reading >>
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