Walking Out on Hungary
As the EU steps up its efforts to fund the defence of Europe, Hungary sticks to its policy of undermining those efforts whenever it can. Given that a Member State cannot be expelled from the EU, the Member States should simultaneously withdraw from the EU Treaties under Article 50 TEU and concurrently sign up to new EU Treaties without Hungary. Only this way could the EU effectively stand up to Russia, introduce important Treaty changes, and finally overcome tolerating Putin’s allies within the EU. Perhaps the Hungarian people would eventually join as well.
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Manufacturing Integration
Advocate General Tamara Ćapeta recently concluded that Denmark’s so-called Ghetto Law constitutes direct discrimination based on ethnic origin and hence a violation of the Race Equality Directive. This blog highlights the harmful role of the integration narrative underlying the law and other coercive measures addressed towards “non-Western” Danes and non-Danes and the broader implications of the present case for challenging stereotypes embedded in integration policies and practices.
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The EU’s Enduring Ethical Deficit in the Aftermath of Huawei
It took over two decades and several high-profile ethical scandals for the main EU institutions to finally agree on the Interinstitutional Body for Ethical Standards. A year later, this ethics body is nowhere to be found, largely blocked by the EPP. While Belgian prosecutors accuse Huawei of lobbying practices involving free football tickets, lavish gifts, and even all-expenses-paid trips to China, the unfolding scandal provides tangible proof of the inadequacy of the ethical framework, notwithstanding the much-acclaimed post-Qatargate reforms.
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Efficiency, but at What Cost
The Commission’s proposal to reform the EU’s legal framework on return is presented as a necessary step to establish a “clear, modern, simplified [system of] […] common rules for managing returns effectively.” This blog post examines whether the proposal lives up to this objective. It assesses the extent to which the proposed changes address the deficits that currently hamper returns and illustrates how the reform would undermine the safeguards of the individuals concerned.
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Anonymity and Surveillance, Creativity and Copyright
The emergence of digital networks over the past decades has presented a problem for copyright exploiters. Thus, they resorted to strategic enforcement targeting individual users. However, the users would often remain anonymous due to the lack of access to traffic data revealing their identity. But the decision in La Quadrature du Net II – permitting retention and disclosure of traffic data for minor offences – has the adverse effect: it incentivises enforcement strategies targeting users and requiring platforms to hand over such data.
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Leaked and Loaded
Bus stops all around Europe are filling with colourful advertisements of NextGenerationEU. This is your tax euros at work seeking to convince citizens that the flagship program of President von der Leyen’s first term has been an unqualified success. The leaked drafts on the EU’s next MFF verify that the Commission’s plan mimics the features of the NGEU. This model should be subjected to critical assessment, as it is ill-suited to addressing geopolitical challenges facing the EU today.
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The End of NATO As We Know It
It is frighteningly easy to picture a situation in which President Trump steps off a plane and declares: “I have a paper signed by Mister Putin, there will be peace for our time.” When Neville Chamberlain declared “peace for our time” on 30 September 1938, the world was at war only one year later. Should Russia choose to test the true value of Article 5 NATO-Treaty, this would be the ultimate test for NATO. Europe needs to get serious about acquiring its own nuclear deterrent, entirely independent of the USA.
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Wenn das Recht versagt, folgt der Krieg
Über eine einfache, aber grundlegende Forderung.
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Paying Judges Properly
On 22 February, several thousand marched in Budapest for an independent judiciary, including fair pay for judges. Three days later, the CJEU issued a decision in Joined Cases C‑146/23 and C‑374/23, setting out the EU law criteria for judges’ remuneration. The decision sets general minimum criteria for the remuneration of judges to guarantee their independence and is highly relevant for Hungary, where the salary pathway for judges is not set by law, it is not judicially enforceable, and the entire system lacks foreseeability.
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A European Army and Three Difficult Choices
J.D. Vance shocked Europe with his speech, signalling a diminishing sense of shared values between the U.S. and Europe. The last Friday’s press conference in Washington further confirmed that America’s commitment as the leader of the free world has disappeared. Consequently, for a "European army", the MSs will have to make three difficult decisions beyond the questions of legal feasibility under the Treaties. A complementary force involving willing MSs under intergovernmental decision-making appears the most realistic path for common territorial defence, while concerns regarding democratic decision-making remain.
Continue reading >>Fast-Tracking Ukraine
Whatever the outcome of the current crisis, Ukraine needs to join the European Union as fast as possible. Neither Trump nor Putin can veto this. The EU, for long lukewarm about widening and deepening, must take rapid steps to facilitate Ukraine’s entry. This will involve revising the terms and conditions of accession. Although Volodymr Zelensky has seen EU membership as second best to NATO, he well knows that his country’s sovereignty now depends on the European Union. Enlargement is a geostrategic investment in peace, security, stability and prosperity.
Continue reading >>From the EU-Belarus Border to Strasbourg
On 12 February 2025 the ECtHR considered for the first time the interpretation of the Convention in the context of so-called ‘migrant instrumentalisation’ or ‘hybrid attacks’, allegedly orchestrated by the Belarusian regime after the EU imposed sanctions on Minsk. This contribution critically reviews the key arguments of the respondent governments with respect to the interpretation of Art. 3 ECHR and Art. 4 Prot. 4 ECHR and considers the relationship between the two in the particular context.
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The Dismissal of the Romanian Prosecutors Annulment Action
In the latest chapter of the EU rule of law saga, the General Court dismissed an annulment action lodged by an association of Romanian prosecutors, which challenged the termination of the Cooperation and Verification Mechanism in 2023, due to lack of direct concern. We argue that a too-narrow view of the issue does not reflect the rule of law situation in the country, including open non-compliance with the CJEU’s own rulings, and leads to several undesired consequences.
Continue reading >>EU Citizenship Should Not Be Sold
The CJEU is soon to decide upon Malta’s citizenship for investment scheme. Upholding the Commission’s challenge would not deprive Malta of power to confer Maltese citizenship. Instead, it would build on settled jurisprudence that EU law constrains national rules conferring EU citizenship and follow the longstanding direction of travel of the Court’s jurisprudence, which has already overcome objections that it is too radical.
Continue reading >>How the CJEU Should Supervise the Court of Arbitration for Sport
On 16 January 2025, AG Ćapeta rendered her Opinion in the Seraing case which could have profound effects for transnational governance of sports. AG Ćapeta highlights convincingly the specificities of CAS arbitration, its forced nature and peculiar private enforcement system. She concludes that CAS awards should be deprived of res judicata effect and subject to EU law review. I advocate for a less disruptive approach. Instead of a total devaluation of CAS awards, we should condition the recognition of their bindingness to their compliance with European public policy and fundamental due process rights.
Continue reading >>Spillovers and Unexpected Interactions
The La Quadrature du Net II decision’s ripple effects are profound. By placing the ruling in thick context, this analysis uncovers hidden legal innovations and unexpected interactions that could reshape the future of data protection in the EU.
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Small Fry
Last week, the oral hearings in the EU-UK Sandeel case were concluded before the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague. This marks the first time in which a dispute between the EU and UK under the 2021 Trade and Co-operation agreement reaches the stage of arbitration, testing the post-Brexit legal framework in a case where the UK’s regulatory autonomy to adopt unilateral measures for the protection of the marine environment is pitted against the EU vessels’ right to access and fish in British waters.
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Democracy vs. Digital Giants
After Elon Musk's attacks on European politicians, Emmanuel Macron warned of digital tycoons threatening democracy. This post examines how tech giants have evolved from EU allies to political actors shaping policy and public debate. It questions whether current regulations can curb their growing influence while balancing free speech and platform neutrality.
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Trump and the Folklore of Capitalism
How can we make sense of the return of Donald Trump, who again convinced enough US voters of his populist bonafides? Populist authoritarianism has made inroads around the world. Only Trump’s version, however, probably brings together so much wealth and power, with super-rich business executives now at the helm. Here I tap a brilliant but neglected book, The Folklore of Capitalism (1937), by the legal scholar and New Deal trustbuster, Thurman Arnold (1891-1961), to understand this remarkable development. Folklore of Capitalism helps explain Trump’s wide appeal, despite the electorate’s disagreements with many of his policy preferences.
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The Hidden Reach of the EU AI Act
The EU AI Act not only regulates artificial intelligence but also triggers the application of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, embedding EU principles of procedural justice into national administrative law. This development advances the Europeanisation of domestic legal systems and reshapes the balance between EU and national public law in the digital age.
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Politicizing Constitutional Review
In July, the Finnish Parliament passed the Act on Temporary Measures to Combat Instrumentalised Migration. The Constitutional Law Committee, a Parliamentary organ in charge of ex ante constitutional review of legislation, greenlighted the Act despite the fact that all of the 18 legal experts it consulted found it to be in conflict with the Constitution, human rights obligations and EU law. This sparked a discussion about the politicization of the Committee and the role its experts play both in the Committee and the media. In this blog, I argue that the Committee’s politicization is visible in how it dressed political arguments as legal when assessing the law.
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Regulating AI at Europe’s Borders
How does the EU's AI Act affect migration and border management? This blog examines the critical gaps and challenges posed by the classification of high-risk AI systems, revealing how exceptions and loopholes amplify fundamental rights risks and accountability gaps. The analysis points out the need for stronger oversight and higher standards to protect the rights of individuals affected by AI-driven migration technologies.
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EU’s AI Act and Migration Control. Shortcomings in Safeguarding Fundamental Rights
In the European Union, AI and non-AI technologies are increasingly being used for border and migration control. In this blog, Brouwer argues that the new AI Act, while adding safeguards, falls short of sufficiently protecting fundamental rights. This is due to its blanket exceptions and broad discretion for national and EU agencies to experiment with AI tools when making decisions about migrants, including asylum seekers and refugees. It is therefore important that the general legal framework on fundamental rights continues to be observed.
Continue reading >>Autos als Belastungszeugen – hilft die KI-VO?
Moderne Autos, Fitnessarmbänder oder Herzschrittmacher beobachten ihre Nutzer ständig und werden dadurch zu potenziellen Beweismitteln. Können ihre Beobachtungen Teil der strafprozessualen Beweisführung werden? Sollten sie in Augenschein genommen oder doch eher wie Belastungszeugen konfrontiert werden? Hilft die KI-VO, wenn die Strafverteidigung die Vertrauenswürdigkeit einer Beobachtung testen will? Die der KI-VO eigene Mischung aus Produktesicherheit und Grundrechtsschutz birgt nicht nur ein generelles Potenzial für mehr Vertrauenswürdigkeit, sie könnte auch helfen genuin strafprozessuale Anliegen in das digitale Zeitalter zu überführen. Dieses Versprechen wird aber nur eingelöst, wenn Rechtswissenschaft und Rechtspraxis die europäischen Vorgaben in den Strafverfahrensalltag übersetzen.
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Big Brother Is Analyzing You
Angesichts der Möglichkeiten automatisierter Datenanalyse wachsen bei den Sicherheitsbehörden die Begehrlichkeiten. Mit der im August 2024 in Kraft getretenen KI-Verordnung existiert eine Regelung, die die Gestaltung und Nutzung von Hochrisiko-KI-Systemen reguliert und dadurch die verfassungsrechtlichen sowie datenschutzrechtlichen Anforderungen an die polizeiliche Datenanalyse schärft. Für die gesetzlichen Vorgaben von Analysebefugnissen und deren Anwendung ist es entscheidend, klare Leitlinien für einen verantwortungsvollen und grundrechtsschonenden Einsatz von KI in Gefahrenabwehr und Strafverfolgung zu etablieren.
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Ein Anfang, mehr nicht
Kein anderes Thema hat die Gemüter beim Ringen um die KI-Verordnung der EU so sehr erhitzt wie die automatisierte Gesichtserkennung in der Strafverfolgung und ihre Regulierung. Jetzt stehen die Vorschriften für Gesichtserkennung und andere Methoden biometrischer Fernidentifizierung fest – zumindest der aller-äußerste Rahmen, den die KI-Verordnung festlegt. Diese Regelungen sind allerdings nur ein Anfang, mehr nicht.
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AI Act and the Prohibition of Real-Time Biometric Identification
Remote biometric identification (RBI) systems are increasingly becoming part of our daily lives. The most prominent example is the use of facial recognition technologies in public spaces (e.g. CCTV cameras). The AI Act regulates the use of RBI systems distinguishing between real-time and post RBI systems. While one of the main aims of the AIA was to ban real-time RBI systems, the Regulation failed to do so in an effective manner. Instead, it can be argued that the AIA still allows for a broad use of such systems.
Continue reading >>KI im Einsatz für die Sicherheit
Mit der Verabschiedung der KI-Verordnung wurde nicht nur ein Rechtsrahmen für den sicherheitsbehördlichen KI-Einsatz geschaffen, sondern erneut die Diskussion über eine kompetenzwidrige Europäisierung des Sicherheitsrechts aufgeworfen. Neben der Notwendigkeit gemeinsamer datenschutzrechtlicher Mindeststandards im Raum der Freiheit, der Sicherheit und des Rechts sprechen jedoch auch die Einhaltung grundrechtlicher Garantien und die in der KI-Verordnung vorgesehenen Regelungsspielräume der Mitgliedstaaten für die Zulässigkeit einer übergreifenden Regulierung des KI-Einsatzes durch den EU-Gesetzgeber.
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The AI Act National Security Exception
In 2024, the EU legislators adopted a detailed national security exception to the AI Act, contravening prior EU case law. Beyond the possibility of a future ruling that would realign the AI Act’s scope with said case law, the impact of this exception might be limited by other applicable laws and the interpretative and practical difficulty of distinguishing between national and public security. The AI Act’s failure to sufficiently account for these intricacies risks further legal uncertainty within the already complex security landscape. Therefore, this blog post explores the challenges of implementing the exception of national security to the AI Act’s scope of application.
Continue reading >>The EU AI Act’s Impact on Security Law
The process of integrating European security law is imperfect and unfinished – given the constraints posed by the European Treaties, it is likely to remain that way for the foreseeable future. This inevitable imperfection, lamentable as it may be, creates opportunities for legal scholarship. Legal scholars are needed to explore the gaps and cracks in this new security architecture and to ultimately develop proposals for how to fix them. This debate series, being a product of VB Security and Crime, takes the recently adopted AI Act as an opportunity to do just that: It brings together legal scholars, both German and international, in order to explain, analyze and criticize the EU AI Act’s impact on security law from both an EU and German national law perspective.
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Data Retention Laws and La Quadrature du Net II
La Quadrature du Net II has been criticized for allowing generalized metadata retention measures. However, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that the law must not become a mechanism for protecting criminals. The scale of online rights violations are a real problem. P2P networks are not only a threat to copyright protection, but also an environment for the distribution of content related to serious crime. It is therefore necessary to strike a balance between these two concerns and to propose solutions that adequately protect users without guaranteeing impunity for criminals.
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Testing the Waters of Private Data Pools
Nowadays, data is mostly collected not by state actors but by businesses. In 2010, the German Constitutional Court held that the legislator has to evaluate the overall level of surveillance in Germany before enacting new data retention obligations. In light of the recent rejuvenised discussions about data retention and a general surveillance account, this text explores whether such an account needs to consider private data pools and what is required for a successful evaluation.
Continue reading >>Compensation for Victims of Violent Crimes
On 7 November 2024, the CJEU provided clarifications for building a cohesive EU-wide framework for compensating crime victims. The ruling not only curtails Member States’ discretion in interpreting key concepts that are critical to defining eligibility for compensation, but it also strengthens the interplay between the Compensation Directive and the Victims’ Rights Directive. This judgment reinforces the the harmonized definition of victim established in Article 2 of the Victims’ Rights Directive, solidifying its status for determining those entitled to victim’s rights.
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Data Retention in a Cross-Border Perspective
This blog post compares the European and US approach to metadata surveillance and highlights some challenges that arise therefrom. It aims at shedding light on the main legal issues that may arise for the future of global counterterrorism. The essential role of courts in striking and keeping a balance between security and protection of human rights is further examined in light of the judgement in La Quadrature du Net II. Efforts should be made to avoid that the economic power of the US would lower the privacy standards when it comes to metadata surveillance.
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The Future of GDPR Enforcement
The ongoing trilogue negotiations on the GDPR procedural regulation aim to address significant enforcement shortcomings. From strengthening complainants' rights to harmonising Data Protection Authorities' discretion and improving cross-border cooperation, these discussions carry major implications for data protection in Europe. This analysis highlights the urgent need for reforms to ensure effective and fair enforcement.
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Of Minor Benefits and Major Costs
Is general and indiscriminate data retention permissible under the EU fundamental rights framework? In La Quadrature du Net II, the Court tilts the metaphorical scale towards data retention. The take-away could contribute to the enlargement of privatised surveillance that rests on a generalised pre-emptive data retention scheme. The ECJ’s findings could cement intrusive practices emerging from the counter-terrorism narrative to regular state practice at the expense of fundamental rights protection.
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Prioritising Member States Over Citizens
The classic story about the right to privacy and data protection in the EU is one of a high level of protection. Yet, this original rosy image is increasingly fading away, most visibly in the La Quadrature du Net litigation, which is a continuation of two dynamics. First, the Court is still cleaning up the residual mess that lingers on from the now annulled Data Retention Directive. Second, in so doing, it is incrementally allowing the Member States indiscriminately retain personal data. Hence, the Court is carving out space for Member States’ preferences to the detriment of the protection of the individual.
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European Society Strikes Back
“This is a frontal and deep attack against the … European society.” With this remarkable statement the Commission has started the “largest human rights battle in EU history”: the infringement proceedings against the Hungarian anti-LGBTIQ* law. The Commission claims that this law breaches the internal market, the Charter rights and the Union’s common values enshrined in Article 2 TEU. The “mega hearing”, which took place on 19 November 2024, is now facing its ultimate test: can the Member States’ compliance with Article 2 TEU be reviewed before the Court of Justice?
Continue reading >>The European Banking Union Also Means Cross-Border Bank Consolidation
A heated debate on the risks of EU’s unfinished-effort to establish a Banking Union erupted on 11 September 2024, when the Milan-based UniCredit announced that it had amassed an equity stake of 9% in the Frankfurt-based rival Commerzbank. The German Chancellor quickly labelled UniCredit’s move an “unfriendly attack,” adding that the acquisition of Commerzbank is a threat to German financial stability. We argue that German authorities can hardly provide a legally-compelling justification to convince the ECB to reject UniCredit’s request on financial stability grounds.
Continue reading >>Irritierend distanzlos
Das LG Erfurt hatte in einem knapp begründeten Urteil im August erstmals Eigenrechte der Natur anerkannt. Nachdem die gewagte (einzel)richterrechtliche Herleitung der Eigenrechte einiger Kritik begegnet war, legte das Gericht in seinem Urteil vom 17.10.2024 mit nunmehr ausführlicher Begründung nach. Andreas Gutmann wollte hier auf dem Verfassungsblog einige der kritischen Einwände gegen das zweite Urteil widerlegen. Doch seine Kritik an der Kritik geht meines Erachtens fehl.
Continue reading >>The Tail That Wags the Dog
In Opinion 2/13 the Court of Justice held that accession to the ECHR must not interfere with the operation of the principle of mutual trust as this would affect the autonomy of EU law. I offer a different reading: mutual trust is not a general principle capable of having autonomous legal effects. Furthermore, mutual trust is acquiring a novel value for the progressive operationalisation of the foundational values ex Article 2 TEU. Read in this way, it has then the potential to enhance fundamental rights protection and is certainly no bar to accession to the ECHR – it is the dog of core values that wags the tail of mutual trust and not vice versa.
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Two Courts, Two Visions
The diverging standards of protection concerning the right to a fair trial, as interpreted by the CJEU and the ECtHR, remain a critical obstacle to the EU’s renewed attempt at accession to the ECHR. In this field, the two Courts seem to be drifting further apart rather than converging, leading to unresolved conflicts between the standard of fundamental rights protection and mutual trust obligations in the EU. Except in the unlikely event of a course-correction by the CJEU, this means that we are no closer to accession today than we were ten years ago, when the now-infamous Opinion 2/13 was handed down.
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Enhancing Fundamental Rights Protection
The EU should ensure fundamental rights’ compatibility of EU legislation before its adoption. To that effect, we propose three distinct paths to improve the EU control mechanisms. Whilst mechanisms to ensure quality control do exist, primarily in the form of impact assessments, these mostly remain a merely formal exercise. Henceforth, we suggest strengthening the ex ante fundamental rights review of EU legislation through enhanced involvement of FRA in the legislative process.
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European Security and the Threat of ‘Cognitive Warfare’
Alleged threats from outside actors to the information ecosystems of the liberal-democratic societies in Western Europe have prompted policymakers to look for solutions that utilize artificial intelligence. However, such a techno-solutionist framing securitizes and externalizes an issue that is ultimately primarily societal and internal in nature.
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Of Artificial Intelligence and Fundamental Rights Charters
The Council of Europe has adopted the Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence – the first of its kind. Notably, the Framework Convention includes provisions specifically tailored to enable the EU’s participation. At the same time, the EU has developed its own framework around AI. I argue that the EU should adopt the Framework Convention, making an essential first step toward integrating the protection of fundamental rights of the EU Charter. Ultimately, this should create a common constitutional language and bridge the EU and the Council of Europe to strengthen fundamental rights in Europe.
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Stuck Between Unity and Diversity
The role of the EU Charter in disputes concerning fundamental rights standards between the EU and Member States has been characterized by ambiguity ever since the Charter’s inception. As the EU deepens integration of Member States to effectively face the challenges ahead, I advocate for a pluralistic interpretation of Article 53 of the Charter that allows for a greater degree of accommodation of national particularities. In that way, one would reduce constitutional tensions and find that there may be unity in diversity after all.
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Interviewing EU Judges
Who are the women and men behind the CJEU’s decisions? The CJEU is an incredibly powerful institution, yet little is known about the backgrounds, judicial philosophies, and ambitions of its judges and advocates general. The Union’s “Help Desk,” as CJEU President Koen Lenaerts modestly describes the Court, is now interpreting broad-ranging rules while also giving legal meaning to ambitious and ambiguous values such as the rule of law. This is where the Borderlines archive comes in – we interview the judges and advocates general of the Court of Justice, to learn about their backgrounds, varied experiences, and their jurisprudential philosophies.
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The European Union and Climate Security
As the discourse linking climate change and security keeps on developing, the Union has positioned itself as a key player on the matter. Political and military realities however seriously hinder its action.
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EU Asylum Law in the Face of a Paradigm Shift
The contribution looks into what be be termed a paradigm shift in the field of asylum law, decisively away from a focus on the individual and towards harsh, indiscriminate measures, whenever ‘security’ so dictates.
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Reconciling National and European Constitutional Legalities
In light of the increasingly established autonomous European constitutional legality, national constitutional courts are now compelled to reconsider their roles. Through a progressive expansion of its direct applicability by national ordinary judges, the Charter of Fundamental Rights risks fostering the marginalization of national constitutional courts. I argue that the solution lies in a highly differentiated consolidation of constitutional legalities that integrates and embraces the unique roles of national constitutional courts in their respective systems of adjudication.
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