Trump v Slaughter and Transatlantic Data Flows
On June 29, breaking with long-standing precedent, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Trump v Slaughter that a US president does not need cause to remove a Commissioner of the Federal Trade Commission. The Supreme Court’s decision puts the EU-US data transfer regime in peril. That regime rests on the assumption that the Federal Trade Commission supervises the handling of European personal data in the United States independently. After Trump v Slaughter, that assumption of independence no longer holds. While there are ways to fix this, the odds seem low.
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Sworn Elsewhere
On 7 August, Colombia's president-elect, Abelardo de la Espriella, takes office. He will swear to keep faith with the Constitution and take command of the armed forces. Yet he has already sworn, in an oath that remains formally operative, to renounce all allegiance to every other sovereign and to bear arms for the United States. Constitutions that make dual nationality an individual right seldom pause to ask what that right means for the one office meant to personify the sovereignty of the people. Colombia can no longer avoid the question.
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Recognition Without a Meal
On 16 July 2026, the European Court of Human Rights held, for the first time, that veganism falls within the ambit of Article 9 of the Convention, which protects freedom of thought, conscience and religion. In G.K. and A.S. v. Switzerland, two applicants – one held in pre-trial detention, the other confined to a psychiatric unit – had requested a vegan diet consistent with their ethical convictions and had received no reasoned response. The Court found Switzerland in breach of Article 9 and of Article 13, which guarantees an effective remedy.
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Ceuta at the Fault Lines of European Solidarity
On Friday morning, Europeans woke up to unsettling news. Within 24 hours, approximately 60,000 migrants successfully managed to reach the Spanish enclave of Ceuta in North Africa, and several dozen have been reported dead in the attempt to swim across the border. Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez has ordered the military to support the Civil Guard on the ground. What caused this sudden influx? Does EU law offer the procedures and mechanisms to respond to the spontaneous arrival of such large numbers of people? And what do these events reveal about the internal functioning of the EU’s migration and asylum regime and solidarity between Member States?
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Wir gehen in die Sommerpause!
Nach arbeitsreichen Monaten verabschieden wir uns in die Sommerpause. Natürlich pausiert nur dieser Newsletter, nicht aber unser Tagesbetrieb. Das sollte Sie wiederum nicht davon abhalten, mal eine Pause zu machen. Wissen Sie noch? Diese kleine Lebenszeit, in der Sie gar nichts machen, keine Sonntagszeitung, kein Scrolling, kein Sudoku, nada! Stattdessen: Stille.
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We Take a Summer Break!
After some busy months, we’re off on our summer break. But it’s only this newsletter that is pausing; our daily business continues, of course. Which, by God, shouldn’t stop you from taking a break yourself. Remember that, “breaks”? Those rare stretches of time when you do absolutely nothing – no Sunday papers, no scrolling, no sudoku, nada! Just silence.
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The Good Migrant
On 13 July 2026, the new “good conduct requirement” in the Swedish Aliens Act entered into force. The main purpose of the new legislation is to create more possibilities for removing foreign nationals from the country on account of shortcomings in their conduct and way of life. It is part of the current government’s drive to make migration policy as strict as possible, and raises significant concerns as regards legal certainty, predictability and differential treatment between groups.
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Binding Without Debating
In early June 2026, the COREPER authorized the European Commission to formalize the EU’s participation in Pax Silica, the US-led semiconductor supply-chain initiative. By June 26, the European Union was a formal signatory. The process was orderly. It was also, by any meaningful democratic standard, invisible. No European Parliament debate preceded the authorization. No impact assessment was published. No connection was drawn to a parallel development: the entry into force of the GENIUS Act, the US stablecoin law. The EU bound itself to one American architecture while remaining structurally exposed to another.
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A Right Not to Move
What does Union citizenship, traditionally dependent on a cross-border element, offer to those who have never exercised their right to free movement? For more than a decade, the position of “static Union citizens” has remained confined to the exceptional protection recognised in Zambrano. In its recent judgment in Safi, delivered on 4 June 2026, the ECJ extended those limits. The judgment established that Union citizenship protects static minor Union citizens from being forced to move within the Union. In doing so, the Court implicitly recognised a right not to move.
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A Cyclical, Foreseeable, Worsening Threat
During the first two decades of the twenty-first century, approximately 489,000 heat-related deaths occurred yearly. Europe is no exception. Under the premise that heatwaves can no longer be distinguished from any foreseeable, cyclical event beyond their control, states are required to adopt all reasonable measures to keep the catastrophic impacts to a minimum, as mandated by the ECtHR. This blogpost explores the extent to which Article 2 of the ECHR provides legal protection against heatwaves and examines the level of due diligence required from state parties.
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US–Saudi Arabia Nuclear Cooperation
On 22 July 2026, the US administration announced a nuclear deal with Saudi Arabia. Under this deal, the US will provide support to the Golf country to establish a civilian nuclear programme. This is worrisome given statements by Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince, that once Iran has nuclear weapons, Saudi Arabia would follow suit. Given the nuclear-induced tensions in the Middle East between Saudi Arabia and Iran and the scope of the agreement, this newly formed cooperation may put another nail in the coffin of the international non-proliferation regime.
Continue reading >>Send Not to Know for Whom the Bell Tolls… as Long as It’s the Court Playing
Perhaps due to the notable impact of climate change on the ongoing summer, the delivery on C-67/25 by the Court of Justice has gone relatively unnoticed hitherto. The brevity of the judgment conflicts with the thunderous effects it may unleash, which have potential to open a definitive breach in the Union’s constitutional acquis. Noteworthily, this rupture is being perpetrated in alleged defence of Art. 2 TEU values: the lynchpin of the Union as a “militant” democracy is being deployed on the external front-line, too, against the Russian “enemy” and his “infiltrated” accomplices.
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The EU Can No Longer Let Fashion Go Up in Flames
Can the law tell a company that it is no longer free to destroy its own products? Among the powers traditionally associated with ownership is the freedom to determine the fate of one’s property. Whether doing so is economically sensible or environmentally responsible is another matter. However, as of 19 July 2026, the Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (ESPR), which entered into force in 2024, prohibits large companies from destroying unsold clothing, accessories and footwear, subject to a limited number of exceptions.
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Hinter den Kulissen wird gestrichen
Wie finde ich Ideen für meine Texte? Zum Glück gibt es neben dem Recht noch das Theater, wo man sich nicht zwischen strafbar/nicht strafbar entscheiden muss, sondern gesellschaftliche Fragen in ihrer Ambivalenz darstellen kann, wo man aber auch nicht labern sollte, jedenfalls nicht ohne dramaturgischen Zweck. Denn gerade im Theater muss man das Publikum mitdenken: weg mit überlangen Monologen, unnötigen Szenen, verwirrenden Plots. Streichen, streichen, streichen. Diese Regel versuche ich auch beim Verfassen wissenschaftlicher Texte zu beachten. Leider wird in der Realität nicht in bzw. an Texten gestrichen, sondern hinter den Kulissen.
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Cuts Behind the Scenes
How do I find ideas for what I write? Luckily, beyond law there is also theatre, where I do not have to choose between guilty and not guilty, where I can instead engage with social questions in all their ambivalence – though there too, crucially, you should not waffle, at least not without dramaturgical purpose. Because in theatre especially, you must think of the audience: away with overlong monologues, unnecessary scenes, confusing plots. Cut, cut, cut. I try to follow this rule when writing academic texts too. Unfortunately, the cutting does not happen in texts, where it would make sense, but behind the scenes, where it is devastating.
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Impeaching a Judge for Federalist Society Membership
On June 29 the U.S. Supreme Court decided Trump v. Slaughter. The ruling completed a forty-year project. Unitary executive theory is one part of it, the claim that the president alone controls the entire executive branch. The rest is a body of rulings that place a president beyond prosecution, leave the disqualification clause unenforceable and remove the independence Congress built into agencies. Judges credentialed through a single organization delivered all of it. In my view, membership in the Federalist Society is sufficient cause to impeach and remove a federal judge.
Continue reading >>Three Phases of the Modi Government
Delhi is, once again, host to a large student protest. It emerged in response to a pathetic comment by the sitting Chief Justice of India, and has now centred around entrance exam irregularities and education reforms. As the events are still developing and taking new turns as I write, it is impossible to judge their trajectory. Nevertheless, in this piece, I assess what these protests convey about the arc of a government that has now been in office for over a decade.
Continue reading >>Towards a Biodiversity Advisory Opinion
Biodiversity loss is one of the central challenges of the “triple planetary crisis” alongside climate change and pollution. Scientific assessments suggest that humanity has already transgressed the planetary boundary relating to biosphere integrity and researchers discuss whether we are already within a sixth mass extinction event. This post seeks to initiate a broader discussion on the promises and pitfalls of replicating successful climate advisory opinion initiatives for the integrity of the biosphere and biodiversity.
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Parade of Fear
Since May 2026, Russia’s war against Ukraine has entered a new phase. Ukrainian long-range drone operations are increasingly reaching targets deep inside Russian territory, following a familiar pattern of war: sooner or later, it returns to the place from which it was launched. Whether these attacks will prove to be a strategic turning point remains unclear. One consequence, however, is already visible. The war is beginning to affect Russia’s state rituals and commemorative practices.
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The Unfinished Repair
The new Directive (EU) 2026/1021, adopted on 29 April 2026, is the most ambitious expression to date of the EU’s anti-corruption architecture. It declares that elected representatives stand under the same anti-corruption standard as civil servants. In substance, that promise fails twice. First, the Directive enables, but does not require, this change. Secondly, the adopted harmonised definition of the “influence offence” fails to capture wrongdoing such as Germany’s mask-contract scandal (“Maskenaffäre”) – monetising mandate-derived political access outside parliamentary proceedings.
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Silver Linings
In June 2026, after a two-year transition, the EU Migration and Asylum Pact became applicable across the Union. The European Council on Refugees and Exiles, representing 122 NGOs, called it “a dark day for Europe”, while Viktor Orbán called it “another nail in the coffin of the European Union”. But the Pact made intra-EU solidarity permanent, automatic, and binding. Furthermore, it codified entitlements for asylum seekers that national courts and the CJEU can enforce. Advocates can build on both of these two elements, even as they forcefully critique many other problematic aspects of the Pact.
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FIFA’s Neutrality Trap
The World Cup in Canada, Mexico, and the United States came to an end yesterday. Beyond being one of the world’s biggest sporting events, the tournament also brought renewed attention to unresolved legal questions concerning freedom of expression in FIFA stadiums. The dispute over the historic Iranian Lion and Sun flag during Iran’s World Cup matches is a case in point. It raises the question on how far FIFA may go in restricting political symbols inside stadiums.
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Breaking the Silence on Sexual Violence in Cyprus
On 8 July 2026, the European Parliament adopted a Resolution on the Impact of the 1974 Turkish Invasion on Cypriot Women and Girls and the Crimes Committed by Turkish Forces and Consequences on Gender Equality. The Resolution acknowledges that Cypriot women’s experiences of violence during 1974 are often being excluded from official recognition and thus calls to document testimonies and provide support for survivors. Its transformative potential will ultimately depend on whether this historical awareness becomes incorporated into Cyprus’s public memory of the conflict.
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Vorgefundenes Schreiben
Der Rapper Vega schreibt in einem seiner Tracks: Ich verschwinde für ein Jahr, weil ich nur schreibe, wenn es wehtut. Das könnte man therapeutisch lesen, doch von der (Er-)Lösung des Schreibens ist nirgends die Rede. Der Stachel sitzt tiefer, er sitzt im Schreiben selbst. Von außen kommt (fast) alles. Über die, und unter Umständen sogar über meine eigene Kreativität in Zeiten von „KI“ zu schreiben, schien mir deshalb kaum sinnvoll. Irgendwo wird das schon stehen, oder zumindest jetzt gerade geschrieben werden. Darum soll es deshalb gehen: um ein lesendes, vorfindendes, „vorgefundenes Schreiben“.
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Found Writing
In one of his tracks, the rapper Vega writes: I’m disappearing for a year, because I only write when it hurts. One could read that therapeutically, yet nothing in it speaks of writing as release, let alone redemption. The sting sits deeper: it sits in writing itself. Almost everything comes from outside. To write about creativity – perhaps even my own – in the age of “AI” therefore struck me as hardly worthwhile. It will already be written down somewhere, or at the very least is being written right now. And that is what this shall be about: a writing that reads – a “found writing.”
Continue reading >>The Limits of Representation
Artificial Intelligence can produce biased outputs. In part, this is because unrepresentative data is used to train, validate and test AI. To remedy skewed datasets and train fairer AI, many call for more comprehensive and systematic data production and processing about diverse people’s bodies and lives, including disabled people. Yet this response rests on a number of assumptions. Drawing on disability data, I argue that we should be cautious about these assumptions when regulating AI.
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When Lady Justice Lifts Her Blindfold, Briefly
Justice, one could say, did not take off her blindfold on July 7th – but she did lift it, just a fraction, long enough to check in with political reality. Paris’s court of appeal upheld Marine Le Pen’s conviction for misappropriating public funds, yet softened the 2025 ban on her running for office just enough to keep a presidential bid in 2027 on the table. The guilty verdict stands – it is the sentence that now intrudes less directly into the democratic arena.
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A Human Right to be Fossil Fuel Free?
Australia is a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, with the weathered, arid continent frequently buffeted by fires, floods, heatwaves and storms. It is also one of the largest exporters globally of fossil fuels, coal and gas. Situated close to Pacific Islands existentially threatened by climate-fuelled rising seas, Australia is a constitutional democracy with an active civil society, an abiding commitment to the rule of international law and this year holds the role of “President of the Negotiations” for the UN climate summit, COP31. These contradictory forces play out in Australia’s domestic climate policy and are at the heart of a new international complaint – labelled the “Hard Truths” case.
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The Past is Never Past
On June 11, 2026, the German automotive company Volkswagen was convicted in four different lawsuits by the Brazilian Labor Court for reducing people to slavery in the Brazilian Amazon. While this judgment marks the company’s second round of convictions for enslavement within the Amazonian state of Pará, it stands out as a historic first in the form of individual reparations for corporate crimes committed nearly fifty years ago. This opens the way for a new era of reckoning with several other companies that committed similar crimes in the past and to this day have never been brought to justice.
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The New Constitutional Amendment and the Removal of the President
On 13 July 2026, the Hungarian Parliament enacted the 17th Amendment to the Hungarian Fundamental Law. In line with the TISZA Party’s election manifesto, the Amendment ends the current President of the Republic’s, Tamás Sulyok’s, term of office. This is undoubtedly an extraordinary measure. Given the President’s apparent partiality and his failure to respond consistently to earlier illiberal constitutional developments, I consider the exceptional and temporary constitutional change to be justified as part of the broader effort to lay the foundations of a renewed constitutional order.
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Beyond Constitutional Groundhog Day
In May 2026, Scottish voters once again returned the Scottish National Party (SNP) to power for the fifth successive Scottish Parliamentary election. The pro-independence SNP will bring up twenty years in government at Edinburgh next year. With the SNP promising another independence referendum but not having a legal mechanism to provide one, and polling on that issue still sat at about 50-50, the Scottish political Groundhog Day looks set to continue. Beneath the stasis, however, there is movement in Scottish constitutional politics.
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The Weimers Report and the Politicisation of Judicial Independence in the EU
On 29 June 2026, the European Parliament’s Constitutional Affairs rapporteur Charlie Weimers published a draft report, to be presented at a public hearing on July 15, on “The Institutional Framework of the European Union and its Interaction with National Authorities in the Application of Union Law, with Particular Reference to Article 19 TEU”. The CJEU's historic reluctance to open up its own governance, notwithstanding what the post-Lisbon constitutional arrangement requires of it, has left it exposed to an unprecedented political critique of how it delivers justice within the EU.
Continue reading >>Press-Release Governance
On 10 July 2026, the European Commission announced that it had preliminarily found Meta in breach of the Digital Services Act for the “addictive design” of Instagram and Facebook. The Commission considers that Meta should disable autoplay and infinite scroll by default, build in real screen-time breaks, and make the recommender system “less engagement-oriented”. The decision is better understood from its strategic and symbolic dimensions in view of its contestable legal basis.
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Le Pen’s Gambit
Marine Le Pen’s presidential campaign began not with a rally but with a court judgment. By announcing her candidacy in a prime-time television interview within hours of the Paris Court of Appeal largely upholding her criminal conviction, the leader of the Rassemblement National has placed one of Europe's oldest constitutional democracies on a path toward a direct confrontation between electoral politics and judicial authority.
Continue reading >>Heatwaves and Legal Remedies
Europe suffered an unprecedented heatwave this June, with debilitating effects felt across various walks of life: thousands of deaths, particularly among the elderly, individuals and families suffering in “heat-trap” apartments, hospitals full and caught unprepared, school closures, and productivity losses. Adaptation measures are indispensable for coping with these soaring temperatures, which have cost lives and severely affected people’s well-being. However, rights-based litigation involving adaptation in Europe has until recently been notable by its absence.
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Dignity Without Autonomy
In Prajwala v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation have a right to rehabilitation under Article 23 read with the right to dignity under Article 21. While the judgment has been celebrated for its three-dimensional dignity framework, it is a missed opportunity to articulate a constitutional basis for protecting the rights of sex workers. The Court's dignity framework – calibrated against objectification in trafficking – is insufficient alone to address persons who assert agency over their work. I argue that reading it alongside decisional autonomy fills the gap.
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Erfurt Shines
Last weekend I was in Erfurt, the place where the authoritarian-populist AfD party held its annual federal convention. On Saturday I got up at the crack of dawn to help block the AfD delegates from reaching the assembly hall. Was I supposed to do that? As managing director of a legal-scholarly discourse platform should I not have remained neutral? The demand to forbid oneself from discriminating between non-banned parties loyal to the constitution and non-banned parties hostile to it is questionable not only insofar as it is addressed to democratic civil society, but also and especially insofar as it is addressed to scholarship.
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Der Glanz von Erfurt
Am letzten Wochenende war ich in Erfurt und bin am Samstag in aller Frühe aufgestanden, um den AfD-Bundesparteitag blockieren zu helfen. Durfte ich das? Hätte ich mich als Geschäftsführer einer rechtswissenschaftlichen Diskursplattform nicht neutral verhalten müssen? Die Forderung, sich selbst zu verbieten, zwischen nicht verbotenen verfassungskonformen und nicht verbotenen verfassungsfeindlichen Parteien zu diskriminieren, ist nicht nur fragwürdig, soweit sie sich an die demokratische Zivilgesellschaft, sondern auch und insbesondere soweit sie sich an die Wissenschaft richtet.
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More Than Mere Bystanders
After two years since the ICJ unequivocally declared Israel’s presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory as unlawful, the European Commission is expected to finally propose measures to “restrict” EU trade with illegal Israeli settlements ahead of the next European Council meeting on 13 July. While most proposals explore suspending the EU-Israel Association Agreement, adopting targeted sanctions against Israeli officials and settlers, or imposing tariffs on settlement trade, these measures are not enough to dismantle a link of complicity where a complete embargo on Israeli colonies is required.
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(De)Valuing Citizenship
Last Tuesday, the US Supreme Court released its final merits opinion of its October 2025 term. In Trump v Barbara, a razor thin 5-4 majority deemed the President’s attempt to deny American citizenship to children born on U.S soil to immigrant parents who are undocumented or present on certain visas unconstitutional. The decision is a rare and important win for immigrants and American constitutional democracy. But Barbara should not be remembered as an example of principled judicial resistance against gross executive overreach.
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AI Is Eating the Book World
In 2011, Marc Andreessen, a key figure in California’s venture capital scene, coined the phrase: “Software is eating the world.” The phrase describes the spread of software into everyday life and the displacement of physical business models. This process continues in an unexpectedly literal sense: AI companies purchase used books, scan them, and dispose of them to gather input for their models. The reason for this seemingly cumbersome method is the expectation that it will fall under the fair use provision of U.S. copyright law.
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The Problems with “General Purpose AI Detectability”
As AI-generated media flood our information ecosystems, detecting synthetic content has become an urgent regulatory challenge – in fact, not one challenge but many, as synthetic media breeds problems across a range of digital contexts, including deepfakes and disinformation, scamming, and content moderation. The EU's new "Code of Practice on Transparency of AI-Generated Content" – the first concrete articulation of Article 50(2) AI Act, the EU's approach to AI-content detection – gives sensible answers to several open questions and will advance the global regulatory debate.
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The Politics of Provocation
A recent judgment of the European Court of Human Rights concerning a TikTok video published by a Georgian self-defined civil activist adds another layer to the Court’s increasingly messy Article 10 case law. The applicant repeatedly insulted public officials in crude and sexually explicit terms while broadcasting to a large online audience. Domestic courts imposed only a modest administrative fine, later reduced on appeal. The ECtHR did not find a violation of the applicant’s right to freedom of expression – raising several questions about the limits of legitimate political speech online.
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Whose European Society?
Commission v Hungary must be understood in the context of the European rule of law saga and the ongoing struggle for true European solidarity. The CJEU confirmed the autonomous justiciability of Article 2 TEU even when the link to specific EU Charter provisions or secondary legislation would already suffice. A close look at ASJP case and its antecedents discloses a European society selectively built – protecting some configurations while leaving others outside – with solidarity, as an operative legal category, consistently among the absences.
Continue reading >>Debating European Society
Antoine Vauchez famously stated that the “constitutionalization of Europe” flourished in the hills of Fiesole. The Academy of European Law (AEL) at the European University Institute organizes an annual Summer Course on the Law of the European Union for two weeks of intensive lectures and exchange. I reflect on this year’s Summer Course as a site where ideas of European society are debated, contested, and further developed. Ultimately, I will critically reflect on what the Summer Course might tell us about the future of EU law.
Continue reading >>European Society without European Private Law?
Integration Through Law was and remains, in various forms, the major driver of European integration. Constitutional Pluralism arose out of constitutionalisation, counterbalancing the move to neoliberalism in the new millennium. In Commission v Hungary, the Court recognised European society “in which pluralism prevails” as a legal concept. The Court radiates judicial authority at a time when Europe is again in crisis, politically through populism, economically through competitiveness and sustainability, and technologically through dependence on US companies.
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Private International Law and European Society
Can one speak of a European society without speaking about private relations? Recent scholarship on European society has largely approached the concept through the lens of public law. Yet societies are constituted at least as much by the horizontal relations between individuals and groups as by public institutions. This blogpost turns to EU private international law (PIL) and will argue that EU PIL brings into view the importance of coordination frameworks for organising a mode of integration based not on unification, but on interdependence.
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Instrumentalised Migration or an Instrumentalised Court?
Amid pending proceedings before the ECtHR concerning summary expulsions and arbitrary detentions, in a context marked by over 120,000 documented push-backs on the Belarusian border, the Chișinău Declaration seeks to influence the legal framework within which the Court assesses such practices. The Declaration emphasises the fundamental duty of states to protect their borders and maintain national security in the context of instrumentalisation of migration, drawing on “democracy capable of defending itself”. I argue that it is not a task for the Court to carve its decisions based on geopolitical circumstances.
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Palestine Action and the UK’s Expanded Terrorist-Connection Sentencing Regime
The sentencing decision delivered in England on 12 June 2026 in the Palestine Action case marks one of the first prominent judicial tests of a little-noticed but constitutionally troubling provision expanded by the Counter-Terrorism and Sentencing Act 2021, under which terrorism-related consequences such as altered release arrangements, forfeiture orders and long-term notification duties can be attached to ordinary criminal convictions on the basis of a judicial finding made after conviction rather than a jury verdict.
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Venezuela After the Earthquakes
On June 24, 2026, two earthquakes struck Venezuela with magnitudes of 7.2 and 7.5. As of 2 July, the official death toll has climbed past 2,295, and more than 38,600 people remain unaccounted for. Having lived through the disaster in Caracas and seeing people desperately crying for help, only reinforces our own empirical understanding of a state in decline. Democracy depends on social trust and a functioning state with administrative capacities. Within hours, what the earthquakes revealed was the extent to which those foundations have eroded in Venezuela.
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Nach den Beben in Venezuela
Am 24. Juni 2026 erschütterten zwei schwere Erdbeben der Stärken 7,2 und 7,5 Venezuela. Bis zum 2. Juli stieg die offizielle Zahl der Todesopfer auf über 2.295. Mehr als 38.600 Menschen gelten weiterhin als vermisst. Wer die Katastrophe in Caracas selbst miterlebt hat und die Menschen verzweifelt um Hilfe schreien sah, für den wird der schleichende Verfall des Staates zur bitteren Gewissheit. Eine Demokratie lebt von gesellschaftlichem Vertrauen und einem funktionierenden Staat. Innerhalb weniger Stunden offenbarten die Erdbeben, wie stark dieses Fundament in Venezuela bereits erodiert ist.
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A European Society of Constitutional Interpreters
On 21 April 2026, the full court wrote history, finding for the first time a separate infringement of Article 2 TEU. This landmark decision Commission v Hungary is the outcome of a long, public, and controversial process. The activation of Article 2 TEU is much less an act of self‑empowerment than a collective interpretation of the Court, Commission, Member States, civil society, and legal scholarship. Borrowing from Peter Häberle, we can see a European society of constitutional interpreters at work. The contribution tells their story.
Continue reading >>Anticipating a Climate Moment in Arusha
The forthcoming climate advisory opinion presents a historic opportunity for the AfCHPR to articulate a coherent and comprehensive African rights-based framework for climate governance. Given Africa’s particular vulnerability to climate change, the need for such guidance is especially pressing. By clarifying States’ obligations under the African Charter, the Arusha judges can strengthen climate accountability across the region and provide guidance to policymakers and domestic courts.
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European Society in the Digital Sphere
The judgment in Commission v Hungary facilitates European society in a negative, boundary-setting sense: it identifies what cannot be accommodated within the European framework of shared values. EU digital regulation, by contrast, facilitates European society in a positive, practice-structuring sense: it translates its values into regulatory duties, procedures, and institutional practices. In my intervention, I show how digital regulation can facilitate the circulation of the values underpinning European society and identify the obstacles to building shared European values in the digital sphere.
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The Constitution Always Speaks in the Present
The newly elected Hungarian Parliament approved the Sixteenth Amendment to the Fundamental Law of Hungary on 15 June 2026, now awaiting the President’s signature before entering into force. Specifically, the Amendment limits the prime Minister’s term of office to eight years, calculated from 1990 onwards. Effectively, this change prevents Orbán from returning to the office. I argue that the Amendment may be justified in the specific Hungarian context to prevent the consolidation of power of one-man. Moreover, I contest that the Amendment is retroactive and, for that reason, ad personam.
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From Values to European Society
Commission v. Hungary plays a role analogous to a judgment of the Italian Constitutional Court: it turns the axiological dimension of the founding text into an autonomous criterion for assessment. Just as that judgment overcame the prescriptive/programmatic distinction, Commission v. Hungary overcame the distinction between values and legal norms, holding that Article 2 TEU contains values integral to its identity. Its significance lies not in constitutionalising European society, but in rendering legally relevant the social coexistence embodied in Article 2.
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Lines and Limits of Collective Singularism in European Public Law
The EU needs to position itself amid rough geopolitical currents and withstand inner contestations. A concept such as European society, which aims to foster a better sense of belonging, deserves support. But pushing things forward via legal engineering may cause questionable shifts. This contribution contrasts previous historical episodes of collective singularism with the latest efforts to judge and write the EU into a new era of constitutionalism. In particular, I show that they reach a natural limit: primary law’s other basic norms.
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Between and Beyond Regional Perspectives on Climate Change and Human Rights
Climate change has reached the dockets of (international) courts. The intersecting nature of this existential threat has led to a flurry of judicial action – somewhat paradoxically in the absence of meaningful political action. Yet, as case law is proliferating, the discussion about climate change in international adjudication has become highly specialized. Against this background, this contribution shares observations on the emergence of regional climate change law and calls for taking this regional perspective seriously by extending it beyond what is traditionally understood as inter-judicial dialogue.
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Learning from Each Other
The relationship between the world's regional human rights courts has undergone a quiet but consequential transformation over the past decade. What began as occasional, informal exchanges among judges and registries — encounters at conferences, the mutual citation of landmark judgments, coordinated submissions to United Nations human rights bodies — has matured into something more deliberate and structurally significant. This blog post examines that transformation from the perspective of the Inter-American Court by attending closely to the three dimensions in which cooperation actually operates.
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Fundamental Rights Protecting European Society
The central question of the justiciability of Article 2 TEU following Commission v Hungary is inevitably linked to the issue of protection of fundamental rights in the EU legal order. In fact, the judgment could extend the review of EU fundamental rights beyond the scope of Article 51(1) of the EU Charter, as the application of the values set out in Article 2 TEU is not limited to the “implementation of Union law”. In this contribution, I link Commission v Hungary to the debate on Reverse Solange.
Continue reading >>Of Flamingos, EU Conditionality and Unfulfilled Expectations
Recently Albania has hit international headlines with news on an ongoing protest over a development project linked to Jared Kushner and Ivanka Trump. Flamingos, that populate the area where the project is set, and banners “Albania is not for sale” have become the symbol of the demonstrations. The approval by the EP of a Resolution on the 2025 Commission Report on 17 June 2026, where a moratorium was requested on any development in the Vjosë-Nartë, was received with optimism from protesters. Yet pre-accession EU conditionality may appear slow and with limited effectiveness.
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Culture and Law in European Society after Commission v Hungary
The judgment of the CJEU in Case C-769/22 Commission v Hungary is not only about cultural services and their regulation but features several arguments regarding both Hungarian Christian culture and the culture of gender and sexually diverse individuals – what could be called LGBTQI+ culture in general. I reflect on three cultural implications emerging from the case: the societal implication of cultural content, the role of EU law in accommodating national preferences and the limitations of EU law in interacting with cultural practices.
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Dianne Otto
There is no doubt that Professor Dianne Otto is a giant of legal scholarship, a foundational figure in feminist international law, and a pioneering scholar of queer theory in international law. But more important than all of these achievements is that she is a woman of great integrity, fierce passion, and abundant hope and joy who has been an inspiration and role model to so many scholars who have come after her. I consider myself extremely lucky to be one of those scholars.
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Black is the New Orange
Last week, eight anti-ICE protesters were sentenced at the Prairieland Detention Center in Texas, receiving a combined 450 years in prison. The sentencing has provoked much condemnation in Europe, and rightly so. Thirty years for moving a box of pamphlets. Fifty for showing up at a protest wearing black. Legally, the concept of terrorism has been hollowed out since the 1990s by legislation that paves the way for massive sentences for relatively banal crimes like moving a box of pamphlets.
Continue reading >>Vulnerable by Legal Design
Today, the deadline expires for applications under Spain’s extraordinary regularization program that made headlines around the world when announced in January 2026. Designed to provide a pathway to legal residence for hundreds of thousands of undocumented migrants already present in the country, it is the largest regularization initiative in the country's history. Yet the program raises questions that extend well beyond the Spanish context. In particular, it invites reflection on the relationship between irregular status and vulnerability.
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Corporate Duty of Vigilance in Climate Litigation
On 25 June 2026, the Paris Judicial Court ruled on the adequacy of TotalEnergies’ vigilance plan. Among other things, the Court ruled that the company's Vigilance Plan must address the greenhouse gases generated through the downstream use of its products (Scope 3 emissions). The judgment simultaneously strengthens the normative content of the Duty of Vigilance while revealing the judiciary’s reluctance to fully articulate a unified framework of corporate climate responsibility.
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A Queer(er) European Society?
The CJEU’s judgment in Commission v Hungary undeniably marked a monumental advancement of EU law. While acknowledging the magnitude of the case seems unproblematic, identifying its impact and its beneficiaries is a less straightforward task. In this contribution, I raise questions from a critical queer perspective while centering on the concept of a value-based European society. I argue that the Court’s underdeveloped elaboration on the politics of values eschews material structures of oppression and exploitation and thus risks foreclosing actual transformative legal interventions.
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Envisioning a Gender-Equal European Society
Among the manifold analyses of Commission v Hungary and a flourishing debate on the realization of a European society based on values, the question of gender has been largely overlooked. We argue that the understanding of a European society which aims to uphold the values of Art. 2 TEU has to be anti-patriarchal. In the following contribution, we apply a feminist methodology – feminist re-writing/re-reading – to the Court’s arguments to carve out hypothetical future orientations for creating a non-patriarchal European society.
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Compelled Decryption of a Mobile Phone
In Minteh v. France, decided in May 2026, the ECtHR held that compelling a suspect to reveal the password to a mobile phone does not violate the right against self-incrimination. And while courts across jurisdictions have adopted different frameworks, the ECtHR unanimously found no violation. In my view, rather than analyzing whether evidence exists independently of the suspect’s will, courts should explore whether the defendant is compelled to actively participate. This approach would tackle why compelling defendants to reveal their passwords is different from taking their fingerprints.
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A Society of Trust
This contribution investigates a still underexplored element of Commission v Hungary. The judgment undoubtedly matters in terms of the enforceability of Article 2 TEU. Yet its significance reaches further. The Court also recalled that the Union’s common values are linked to one of the central mechanisms of EU law: the principle of mutual trust. I submit that mutual trust should not be understood merely as a technical rule of inter-state recognition but as the horizontal institutional grammar of interdependence within European society.
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Looking Sideways
What are the major interpretative principles which assist the European Court of Human Rights in its decision-making? What role do they play in climate change judgments? Subsidiarity, the living instrument doctrine and a harmonious interpretation of international law all enable the Court to incorporate relevant comparative law into its reasoning. Climate change case-law is particularly well-suited to the comparative law approach and I argue that the role of comparative law can potentially have more impact in this emerging area of the law than in others.
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On Red (Funding) Lines
One of the conceptually most significant innovations by the Court of Justice in Commission v. Hungary is its invocation of European society as a normative referent of the EU legal order, and the characterisation of that society through pluralism. This conceptual step has consequences that reach well beyond the judgement. I argue that it could place the Court on a potential collision course with the European Commission’s recent proposal to explicitly link EU civil society funding to compliance with the values enshrined in Article 2 TEU.
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The Dangerous Idea of a European Society Based on Common Values
The CJEU began to treat the values enshrined in Article 2 TEU as justiciable legal norms in its ASJP judgment from 2018. In its 2026 judgment in Commission v Hungary, it took the further step of treating those values as justiciable stand-alone norms and justified that step by invoking the existence of a European society. This contribution approaches the matter from a social-science point of view. I argue that the Article-2-TEU claim of a European society is theoretically unconvincing, empirically untenable, and politically dangerous.
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Stammheim to Stammheim
When German readers encounter the word “Stammheim”, they usually do not think of a quiet, leafy suburb in the city of Stuttgart. Instead, the name immediately evokes Germany's most notorious maximum-security prison. It conjures images of a dark chapter in Germany’s history: the era of homegrown left-wing terrorism and a state in existential crisis. Stammheim is the physical embodiment of a profound democratic dilemma: how should a constitutional democracy deal with those it considers an existential threat from within? It is highly symbolic, then, that the Stuttgart Regional Court is using this infamous high-security courtroom to try five pro-Palestinian activists, a group dubbed the “Ulm5”.
Continue reading >>Stammheim nach Stammheim
Wenn Sie „Stammheim“ lesen, denken Sie vermutlich nicht an ein beschauliches Stuttgarter Stadtviertel – sondern an ein Gefängnis. An eine dunkle Episode in der Geschichte der jungen Bundesrepublik: Terrorismus. Staatskrise. Feinde hinter Panzerglas. Stammheim ist die steingewordene Antwort auf ein historisches Dilemma: Wie muss sich der Rechtsstaat zu denen verhalten, die er als existenzielle Bedrohung von innen wahrnimmt? Bemerkenswert also, dass Stammheim im Sommer 2026 wieder einmal als Verhandlungsort in Terminkalendern auftaucht: Das Landgericht Stuttgart verhandelt dort derzeit gegen fünf Pro-Palästina-Aktivist:innen – die „Ulm5“.
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Mapping the Future
On 25 June 2026, the Paris Judicial Court became the first court to rule on the merits of Notre Affaire à Tous and others v. TotalEnergies SE. At its core, the case concerns whether TotalEnergies violated the French Commercial Code by failing to adequately report the climate risks associated with its activities and take action to mitigate those risks in line with the goals of the Paris Agreement. The decision demonstrates that a domestic due diligence statute can reach the full climate footprint of a global energy major.
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Don’t Leave the President at Home
Relations between Czech President Petr Pavel and Prime Minister Andrej Babiš's government have deteriorated almost since the government took office in December 2025. A few months ago, the political conflict culminated in an unprecedented dispute over the President's participation in the upcoming NATO summit in Ankara and prompted an unusually swift intervention by the Czech Constitutional Court. After the government had tried to prevent the President from attending the NATO summit, he filed a competence complaint and a request for an interim measure on 22 June 2026. Just two days later, on 24 June 2026, the Court released its decision.
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Not a Return, Rather an Abduction
On 17 June 2026, the European Parliament approved the new so-called Return Regulation with the backing of conservative and far-right groups. Only the Council's final approval is now pending. Under the Regulation, people may be forcibly transferred to a country they have never known or even set foot in. By any ordinary understanding of the term, this has nothing to do with a "return." It bears a much closer resemblance to what most people would call abduction.
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European Society Between Facts and Norms
Article 2 TEU values, such as pluralism, oscillate between descriptive claims, legal normativity, and appeals to European society as a source of authority. From a Habermasian perspective, the democratic legitimacy of EU values enforcement remains difficult to justify in the absence of a robust pan-European deliberative process through which those values can be articulated and contested. At the same time, Commission v Hungary constitutes a legitimate restorative intervention in a dysfunctional democratic process distorted by the stigmatisation of LGBTQ+ persons.
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In Search of Reflective Equilibrium
In her academic writings, Advocate General Tamara Ćapeta has observed that many EU rights have been developing on a case-by-case basis, but so far without “a general and comprehensive explanation that they form part of a liberal and tolerant democratic society”. Drawing on this observation, and against the backdrop of the Court’s ruling in the Hungarian case, I will argue in this contribution that “pluralistic European society” is not only a sociological concept but also plays an important normative role as an organising regulative concept in EU constitutional-legal interpretation.
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Taking Pluralism Seriously
If there is anything we can say about European society, it is that it is pluralistic. My suggestion is to understand pluralism in light of Isaiah Berlin's philosophy of value pluralism. A pluralistic society may be understood as a particular liberal model of the good society, or as an irreducible plurality of incommensurable visions that must coexist. The former risks turning Article 2 TEU into a mandate for convergence towards one substantive vision of a good society.
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Climate Justice Unlocked
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has just handed climate litigators in Latin America the most powerful tool they have ever had. Advisory Opinion OC-32/25 restructures the procedural architecture of climate litigation: inverting burdens of proof, authorising the presumption of causal links between state emissions and climate harm, and recognising satellite imagery as evidence that states must make accessible to victims. For organisations that have spent years fighting for communities on the front lines of the climate emergency, this is a transformative moment.
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Procedural Rights in Climate Cases Before the ECtHR
This blog post takes the landmark ruling KlimaSeniorinnen as a starting point to examine the role of procedural rights in climate litigation before the European Court of Human Rights. Procedural rights, as we argue, can be understood in a twofold manner: on the one hand, as admissibility criteria structuring access to the Court, and on the other, as substantive guarantees flowing from the Convention itself. Read in this light, KlimaSeniorinnen – alongside Greenpeace Nordic – reveals key developments in the Court’s emerging climate jurisprudence across both dimensions.
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A Tale of Our Times
Keir Starmer's resignation only two years after Labour's landslide victory is more than a story about the failures of Labour or Starmer himself. It says something larger about the increasingly difficult conditions under which governments in what were once called “advanced liberal democracies” operate today. Across Europe and beyond, political fragmentation, electoral volatility and the rise of populist challenger parties have made governing considerably harder.
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Strengthening Data Protection Resilience Against Geopolitical Threats
Geopolitical threats to data protection can arise in particular from armed conflicts and cyberattacks, and may involve disrupting the processing of personal data needed to deliver vital services, destroying public records and databases, and misusing data to facilitate human rights abuses. EU law is currently unprepared to protect data processing in case of a major crisis such as kinetic or cyber warfare. This requires action by the EU institutions and the data protection authorities, in particular under the EU GDPR.
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Sweden’s Vital Interests
Can “vital interests” of the state serve as a legal criterion for a Migration Authority to strip the nationality of citizens with dual citizenship on security and organized crime grounds? The problem of gang-related organized crime has led to the latest legislative proposal to revoke citizenship, which threatens Sweden’s vital interests. But the legal standard of seriously damaging “Sweden’s vital interests” remains very broad and thus highly susceptible to misuse. Moreover, only criminal law – with all the constitutional safeguards it affords – should carry out such a sanction.
Continue reading >>The Politics of European Society
Commission v Hungary marks the remarkable ascent of the European society discourse. A closer look, however, reveals that there is little transformative in the Court’s Article 2 TEU case law or its invocation of European society. Beneath the rhetoric of transformation, the institutional adaptation of the society discourse is above all conservative in nature, seeking to protect the authority of the EU. The hope that the Court will pursue a transformative agenda is unfounded. Rather, the notion of European society is instrumental in legitimising the status quo.
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European Society at the Italian Constitutional Court
In its recent judgment No. 63/2026, the Italian Constitutional Court acknowledged the existence of a European society grounded on the values in Article 2 TEU. The judgment appears to be the first explicit reference by a constitutional court of an EU Member State to the emergence of a European society. Judgment concerned the constitutionality of recent legislation restricting access to Italian citizenship for descendants of Italians abroad. The passage on European society is an obiter dictum. I argue that its real significance lies in the question: Who belongs to European society?
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New Genomic Techniques in Food and Feed
On 17 June 2026, the European Parliament adopted new rules on plants obtained by certain new genomic techniques (NGTs), including the famous genetic scissors CRISPR-Cas9, and the food and feed made from these plants. This is the most radical change in the regulation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the EU in the last three decades. The new rules exempt certain NGT plants and their products from investment-choking GMO rules under Directive 2001/18 and lower the risk assessment requirements for certain other NGT plants.
Continue reading >>Open Letter to the Hungarian Parliament on the Replacement of Certain Public Office-Holders
We, public law scholars, have come, after careful consideration, to the difficult conclusion that we support the replacement of those high-ranking public office-holders who have remained in office from the previous autocratic regime. At the same time, we consider it justified for Parliament to exercise self-restraint in the election of new public office-holders.
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From Awas Tingni to Advisory Opinion 32/25
In July 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights issued Advisory Opinion 32/25 on the Climate Emergency and Human Rights: it recognized the right to a healthy climate as a standalone human right, declared a jus cogens norm prohibiting irreversible environmental harm, and affirmed the legal personhood of nature. These are not incremental developments. They are structural shifts in international environmental law, and they are the culmination of more than two decades of jurisprudential construction. This post traces that arc.
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No Kings, No Queens in European Society
Armin von Bogdandy discovered the concept of society in Article 2 of the EU Treaty, theorised it as European society and brought it to the forefront of European legal scholarship and practice. The proposition of a European society stands or falls with the assumption that the Treaty of Lisbon has established a new framework. However, there are good reasons, particularly based on the history of Article 2 TEU and its structure, to take the exact opposite view.
Continue reading >>EU Law as the Law of European Society
In its decision Commission v Hungary, the CJEU’s plenary qualified EU law as the “common legal order of a society in which pluralism prevails”. Leaving pluralism aside, this blogpost explores possible meanings of the “of” in the first part of that formula. My exploration sketches four ever more foundational understandings: European society as the social field of EU law; EU law as expressing deep structures of that society; European society as generating EU law; and European society as the source of EU law’s authority.
Continue reading >>Where Are You Really From?
In recent years, both the European Union and its Member States have started relying heavily on advanced technologies, including AI, to support border control, migration management, and asylum administration. One prominent example of the increasingly technified EU migration control system is the Dialect Identification Assistance System (DIAS) used by the German Federal Office of Migration and Refugees in the asylum procedure. While DIAS is often described as a neutral and objective tool, there are dangers for individual rights protection and a clear risk of institutional disguise.
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European Society After Commission v Hungary
Since the CJEU published its monumental decision Commission v Hungary on April 21, scholars have already produced an impressive number of analyses. This symposium on ‘European Society after Commission v Hungary’ aims to add to this debate by focusing on the deeper, structural, and so far overlooked implications of this decision for the concept of European society. In this introductory post, we adopt a genealogical approach to the emergence of the research interest in European society and elaborate on its implications and challenges.
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At Germany’s Service
Over eleven years, Schengen has been dying by a thousand cuts. Internal border controls – meant as exceptional, time-limited measures – have proliferated since 2015, with refugees pushed back at borders once meant to be open. After years of deafening silence, there is now finally a sign of life from the Commission: on 2 June 2026, it issued an opinion on the necessity and proportionality of border controls under the new Art. 27a(3) Schengen Borders Code. However, the opinion does little to remedy Schengen's worrying condition – and reveals a troubling vision of its future.
Continue reading >>Pilze finden
Ich suche leidenschaftlich gerne Pilze. Ich laufe durch den Wald und lasse meinen Späherblick schweifen, bis er irgendwo hängen bleibt: Halt! Da stimmt was nicht. Das ist irgendwie auffällig, wie sich das Laub vom Vorjahr da ineinanderschichtet zwischen den Sonnenflecken. Da sind zwischen dem ganzen Erdbraun und Staubgrau merkwürdige, oft merkwürdig intensive Farben: ein Dottergelb, ein Samtbraun, ein Elfenbeinweiß. So finde ich Pilze, und so finde ich auch meine Ideen beim Schreiben. Seit Neuestem habe ich dabei jemanden/etwas an meiner Seite. Claude heißt er/es und tut fortwährend so, als wäre er ein Gefährte, ein Subjekt, ein Mensch.
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Spotting Mushrooms
Hunting for mushrooms is a passion of mine. I walk through the forest and let my scout’s eye wander. Hold on. Something’s not right. There’s something not quite natural about the way last year’s leaves are layered there, between those patches of sunlight. Among all the earth-brown and dust-grey, there are strange, often strangely intense colours: an egg-yolk yellow, a velvety brown, an ivory white. That is how I find mushrooms – and that is how I find my ideas when I write. Lately, I’ve had someone – or something – by my side. He, or it, is called Claude, and he presents him-/itself the whole time as though he/it were a companion, a subject, a person.
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Climate Change and the Environment at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights
The relationship between climate change and human rights has occupied international legal scholarship for more than two decades. Yet for much of that period, the relationship remained largely aspirational — acknowledged in soft-law instruments and scholarly commentary, but only partially operationalized by binding international adjudication. Advisory Opinion OC-32/25, adopted by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR or the Court) on May 29, 2025, marks a decisive shift in that landscape.
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Reviving the EDC Treaty is Legally Feasible, and Preferable to the Ongoing National Rearmament
Since Trump was re-elected to the US Presidency, individually and collectively we proposed reviving the European Defence Community (EDC) treaty as a way to integrate European defence for a brave new era. Events since November 2024 have confirmed our conviction that Europe should take its defence seriously. Our colleague Robert Schütze has criticized our proposal, and despite our prior response, he remains unconvinced. So we’ll have to agree to disagree. Nevertheless, we still believe that it is important to clarify our standpoint.
Continue reading >>Dissonance at the Berliner Philharmonie
The Hertie School has prohibited its 2026 graduating cohort from displaying Palestinian solidarity symbols at their 22 June ceremony at the Berliner Philharmonie and required students to sign a declaration accepting these terms as a condition of entry. While universities possess a legitimate interest in protecting the ceremonial character of graduation events, categorical restrictions on peaceful symbolic expressions – particularly those not included in the taxonomy that German authorities have designated as prohibited – are arguably not proportionate.
Continue reading >>The Hungarian Transition’s Meaning for European Constitutionalism
The Hungarian transition is not only a Hungarian event. It is a European constitutional moment. The contributions to this symposium have shown how demanding the repair of constitutional democracy after a hybrid regime will be: a new government must restore constitutional supremacy, reconsider cardinal laws, guarantee judicial and prosecutorial independence, reopen markets, reestablish media pluralism, and counter corruption. But there is more. The Hungarian transition can play a crucial role in the development of European constitutionalism itself.
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Hungary and the Venice Commission
Time is short and the demands are enormous. Following the landslide victory in Hungary’s parliamentary elections, the new government must demonstrate that its commitment to reform extends beyond mere rhetoric. Nevertheless, hard limits are set by EU law, and soft limits are set by best practice. When theoretically unlimited possibilities meet with vaguely worded standards, it is helpful to have an Archimedean point outside the system from which to assess which reforms will be helpful and sustainable, and which may exacerbate existing problems or unnecessarily weaken the system.
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On the Role and Legitimacy of Supranational Courts in a Member State’s Retransition
The last decade has demonstrated what role the Union and in particular the Court of Justice can play in keeping a Member State “within the orbit” of the rule of law. Within that process, the case law of such bodies established numerous red lines as to what practices are not acceptable in a rule of law governed liberal democracy. But will the same red lines now be applicable also to the “good guys”? If yes/no, what will that mean for the legitimacy of those bodies, in particular the European Union?
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Key Implications of the Next ECHR Climate Case, Müllner v. Austria
Müllner v Austria is more than just a sequel to KlimaSeniorinnen. It has the potential to become a pivotal case for the Court’s developing climate jurisprudence, particularly as regards individual victim status, the scope of States’ positive obligations, and the position of EU climate law within the Convention framework.
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The Judiciary Exits the Scene
The Court of Appeal has reversed the High Court's ruling that the proscription of Palestine Action was unlawful. A special five-judge panel found the ban proportionate, affording the Home Secretary wide latitude on national security grounds. The result of the ruling, and its lop-sided account of the separation of powers, is to remove meaningful legal constraint on the Home Secretary’s capacity to proscribe a group for operational effectiveness reasons, even if that group only has minimal engagement with activities that satisfy the definition of terrorism, as well as with respect to invasive national security powers more broadly.
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Manufacturing Artificial Majorities
India’s ruling BJP is systematically engineering parliamentary majorities through mass unethical defections, electoral roll purges, and wrongful nomination cancellations, thus bypassing the ballot where it cannot prevail. The anti-defection law has been hollowed out through interpretive distortion amid complicity by House Chairpersons, while the Supreme Court watches as a bystander. Ambedkar had hoped in 1949 that the new Constitution would bring order to Indian politics. However, with the Indian Constitution failing, much is at stake.
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KlimaSeniorinnen and its Progeny
On 9 April 2024, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights delivered rulings in three climate-change cases, thus becoming the first international court to establish a right to be protected from the effects of climate change. The leading judgment was Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland. Now, two years after the KlimaSeniorinnen precedent, we can perhaps begin to take stock of its implications and its progeny.
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Inter-Judicial Dialogue on Climate Change and Human Rights
Climate change is not only an environmental or scientific issue – it is fundamentally a human rights challenge. Across jurisdictions and legal traditions, courts are increasingly being called upon to respond to their complex and far-reaching impacts on our human rights. This symposium brings together reflections from judges, practitioners, and scholars from the three regional human rights systems, based on presentations delivered at a conference held at Central European University in cooperation with the University of Vienna on 17 April 2026.
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Post-Illiberal Women’s Rights
Women’s rights turned out to be the litmus test for harms caused by the rule of law backsliding. That is why it is worth analysing the effectiveness of the post-2023 restoration of the rule of law in Poland, focusing specifically on what was visibly undermined by the populists: women’s rights. We argue that the pre-populist negligence in recognising the constitutional status of women’s rights made it easier for populists to attack them. Such negligence can also be identified in the Hungarian context.
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Restoring Academic Freedom in Hungary
Hungary’s experience with illiberal democracy exposed several uncomfortable truths about constitutional democracy, including vulnerabilities at the foundations. Higher education is a case in point. If the Magyar government chooses to engage in constitution making, it will face a robust architecture created by illiberal knowledge politics and nestled in transnational networks. It may decide to seize a historic opportunity to set a constitutional script that provides protection for academic freedom and safeguards university autonomy for a post-illiberal constitutional democracy.
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The No-Benefit-Rule’s Struggle for Survival
Zimbabwe is on its way to amend its 2013 constitution. One of the amendment’s aims is to undermine the term limit provision for the incumbent president Mnangagwa, whose second and final five-year term is due to end in 2028. Such an attempt is not unprecedented on the African continent with its “presidents for life” culture. However, since the Zimbabwean constitution has established a specific and almost unique safeguard to protect this provision, such an amendment would even formally contravene the constitution – and exceed current practices in Africa.
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Rewiring Democracy After Orbán
Hungary’s democratic renewal cannot succeed through constitutional restoration alone. The durability of the Orbán regime stemmed not only from formal institutional capture, but from deeply embedded informal power throughout society. Rebuilding democracy therefore needs more than legal repair: it requires institutionalized participation, decentralized power, and directly embedded civil society into governance. Thus, transitional justice cannot be reduced to constitutional restoration or elite replacement. It must also address the underlying social logic of authoritarian governance.
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Banned From the Future
With the latest US Department of Commerce Directive banning foreigners from access to Mythos and Fable 5 – the most advanced Anthropic AI models – citizenship has acquired a new function globally. On top of the traditional function of policing access to territory, confiding those in possession of second-rate citizenships to the spaces of no opportunity, the legal status of citizenship can now exclude from productivity and vital technology: policing access to the future.
Continue reading >>Eingebürgert und verstummt
Vor kurzem unterhielt ich mich mit in Deutschland geborenen Freund:innen über Zugehörigkeit, Identität und Staatsbürgerschaft. Schüchtern – und ein wenig stolz – erzählte ich, dass ich gerade erst die deutsche Staatsbürgerschaft erhalten hatte. Zugleich fragte ich mich, ob mich das tatsächlich zu einem gleichberechtigten Deutschen macht. Sofort entbrannte eine lebhafte Debatte. Meine Freund:innen versicherten mir charmant, dass es so etwas wie „Bio-Deutsche“ gar nicht gebe – das sei ein Gespenst der Vergangenheit. Doch ein Urteil des Verwaltungsgerichts Berlin zum Fall Abdallah A. nahm mir diese Gewissheit.
Continue reading >>Naturalised and Muted
Not long ago, I was chatting with my German-born friends about belonging, identity, and citizenship. I had recently become a German citizen, but wondered whether that truly makes me an equal one. A lively debate immediately flared up, and my friends charmingly convinced me that there is no such thing as “Bio-German”– that this is only a ghost from the past. But then the case of Abdallah A. decided by the Berlin Administrative Court forced me to revisit that conversation.
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The EU Sanctions against Jacques Baud and the Crisis of Freedom of Expression
On 15 December 2025, the Council of the European Union placed (a further) twelve individuals and two entities on a sanctions list, intended to counter Russian “information manipulation and interference”. Among them is the Swiss military analyst, former colonel and long-serving UN and NATO official Jacques Baud. His assets are frozen, any financial or other economic support is prohibited, and he may neither enter nor leave EU territory. The supposedly “smart” sanctions directed against private “disinformers” are not only contrary to fundamental rights, but also foolish. They amplify the reach and impact of the very propaganda they seek to combat, while at the same time discrediting the Union itself.
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Rebuilding Hungary’s Civic Space
Hungary’s April 2026 elections that ended 16 years of Viktor Orbán’s autocratic rule have rightly generated urgent debate about constitutional repair. Beyond rebuilding the rule of law and democratic institutions, a successful transition will also need an engaged citizenry who value and trust these institutions and are eager to participate in public life. The transition therefore presents a critical opportunity to rebuild the legal, policy, and financial frameworks needed for an independent civil society to flourish. Achieving this requires a coherent package of legislative, institutional, and financial measures.
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Freedom of Speech at the FIFA World Cup 2026
On 11 June 2026, the FIFA World Cup hosted by Canada, Mexico and the USA will be launched by the opening match between Mexico and South Africa in the Estadio Azteca of Mexico City. Considering the current international context, in particular ongoing tensions and armed conflicts, it is likely that FIFA and the three host countries will also face certain incidents during this year’s tournament. In principle, the international sports movement, including FIFA, aims to be ideologically, politically, and religiously neutral, which can provoke tensions with players’ and fans’ legitimate activism.
Continue reading >>A Hierarchy of Harms
The specific result in Valeurs de l’Union is correct. An obviously discriminatory law which equates LGBTI+ persons with pedophilia violates EU law. However, the conceptual framework to reach that result is troubling. By limiting Article 2 TEU to “manifest and particularly serious” breaches of the values of human dignity, equality, and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities, the Court does not merely constrain the provision’s reach but encodes a majoritarian, visibility-based standard of human rights that departs from the focus on individual dignity.
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Constitutional Reset As the Only Choice
One of the most pressing challenges for the new Hungarian authorities will be the future of the Constitutional Court, perceived as a captured institution. The new authorities may be tempted to adopt amendments aimed at a complete overhaul of the Constitutional Court, although such radical actions risk being seen as a violation of judicial independence. However, sometimes radical steps in response to captured apex courts can be both justified and necessary, provided that they form part of a broader reform genuinely aimed at strengthening the institution’s independence.
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Learning from Poland’s Imperfect Reform
If Hungary under Péter Magyar and the TISZA party is to learn from the democratic repair pursued under Donald Tusk in Poland since December 2023, it is that a comprehensive and swift reform of the media ecosystem is crucial. Such reform does not simply entail taking control of public service media but rather transforming the broader ecosystem to enhance media freedom and pluralism. Crucially, the reform should not only be lawful but also perceived as legitimate.
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The Removal of Key Office Holders
After the deadline that Prime Minister Péter Magyar set for the key constitutional actors to resign passed, he reiterated the government’s intention to remove them by a single constitutional amendment. They are all Orbán appointees. However, one must first reconcile and overcome the anticipatory obstruction paradox and the procedural self-entrenchment paradox. This goes only while acknowledging that these are in themselves constitutional wrongdoings that must be confronted rather than concealed, and thus subjecting them to the highest possible standards of public justification and deliberation.
Continue reading >>Was uns einfällt
Am Anfang war kein Wort – sondern nur ein weißes Blatt. Als Leser:innen sind Sie meistens nur mit dem Endprodukt konfrontiert – unsere Autor:innen und wir beim Verfassungsblog hingegen mit diesem weißen Blatt. Doch was passiert eigentlich, bevor die Texte bei uns veröffentlicht werden? Die Frage beschäftigt uns intensiver, seit wir das Gefühl haben, dass KI das weiße Blatt für uns füllt. Wir werden dazu kurze Texte aus unserer Redaktion und von unseren Autor:innen teilen, die den kreativen Prozess beschreiben. Ich darf heute den Anfang machen.
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What Comes to Mind
In the beginning, there was no Word – only a blank page. As readers, you usually encounter only the finished product, while our authors, and we at Verfassungsblog, have to face that blank page. So what actually happens before a text is published here? This question has been on our minds all the more since AI seems to be filling the blank page for us. We’ll be sharing short pieces from our editorial team and from our authors describing the creative process. I have the honour of making the beginning today.
Continue reading >>Contesting Big Tech’s AI Greenwashing
Sustainability is among the most contested topics in contemporary debates around AI. While the industry’s meteoric growth has sparked growing public concern about its environmental impacts, Big Tech companies have gone to great lengths to portray AI as not just sustainable but positively good for the environment. Misleading practices related to consumer transactions are illegal under EU law, and the 2024 Directive on Empowering Consumers for the Green Transition has just introduced stricter rules on greenwashing.
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Decorative by Design
FIFA’s climate criteria for World Cup hosts borrow the authority of international climate law without any enforcement consequence. The 2026 host country’s withdrawal from the parent treaty regime exposes the borrowing as decorative. On 11 June 2026, the US opens the tournament that promised environmental leadership and an emissions trajectory aligned with the Paris Agreement. FIFA treats this contradiction as a non-event. What exactly do FIFA climate criteria oblige, and through what mechanism? The answer, on close reading, is that they oblige very little.
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Rewriting Marriage After Trojan
In the span of just a few weeks in spring 2026, the post-Trojan Polish Supreme Administrative Court delivered a series of judgments that confirmed the obligation to transcribe foreign same-sex marriage certificates into the Polish civil status register. At the same time, on 22 May 2026, Poland adopted a regulation explicitly allowing entries such as husband/husband and wife/wife. These developments indicate a broader shift towards grounding recognition in constitutional and human rights reasoning rather than in free movement considerations.
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EU Inc. and the Myth of the Perfect Legal Basis
The debate surrounding the proposed EU Inc. has become one of the most vibrant discussions in European corporate law. Recently, however, attention has shifted to a different question. In a thoughtful contribution, the European Company Law Experts Group argued that the proposal rests on shaky constitutional foundations. These concerns deserve serious consideration. Yet they also risk obscuring a more fundamental reality. When political consensus exists, institutional and legal solutions usually follow. The constitutional debate therefore risks putting the cart before the horse.
Continue reading >>Normalising Lawlessness via Membership
The European Law Institute has recently welcomed Poland’s (compromised) Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court as its latest institutional members. Beyond this professional network, two judicial networks known as the Conference of European Constitutional Courts (CECC) and the Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the EU (NPSJC) have similarly failed – through inaction – to take account of CJEU and ECtHR rulings as regards their Polish members. This post will look at the negative spillover effects created by these networks’ membership (in)action.
Continue reading >>The Rise and Fall of the Mafia-State in Hungary
Ever since the elections, there has been a sense of euphoria sweeping the country that surpasses even the democratic transition of 1989. Yet, one of the key lessons drawn from both the revolutionary 1989 and the counter-revolutionary 2011 constitution-making processes is that both were elite-driven, lacking any participatory dimension – which may have contributed to the fall of liberal democracy. Today, the overwhelming euphoria could yet channel itself into genuine “constitutional enthusiasm”. Perhaps Hungary has yet another chance to seize that constitutional moment.
Continue reading >>Again, the European Defence Community Is Dead, Let It Rest in Peace
Can the 1952 European Defence Community (EDC) be revived to supranationalize European defence in 2026? My earlier post had raised serious doubts about the legal feasibility of this idea championed by ALCIDE; and these doubts have now been scrutinized by the project’s two senior jurists: Federico Fabbrini and Franz C. Mayer. This rejoinder addresses their counterarguments, and it also questions, once more, the political wisdom of reviving the NATO-led executive organization today, especially when alternative forms of European defence integration are currently explored.
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“Selvar” the Courts
On 28 May 2026, the Provincial Court of Sucumbíos ruled in favour of the A'i Cofán community of Sinangoe: formal land titles for 63,755 hectares of Amazonian territory. The ruling followed an intercultural hearing held in the rainforest itself – beginning at 4 a.m. with the taking of yoco, ending with children presenting hand-painted maps of rivers they swim in and paths their grandparents walked. The community's territorial mapping was cited as decisive evidence: an ethnographic tool showing how a people conceptualise their place within their own cosmology.
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Shirin Ebadi
Like many Iranians in 1979, Shirin Ebadi had hoped the revolution would bring something better. The regime that emerged gave her a lifetime’s work proving it had not. Ebadi is an Iranian lawyer, jurist, and human rights activist who became the first Muslim woman and the first Iranian to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 2003. Her life is a testament to how legal training can be transformed into a means of resistance and how an individual, despite being stripped of institutional power, can still use the law as a tool for justice.
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Crossing a Line in Plain Sight
On May 15, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe unanimously adopted a political Declaration on the ECHR at their annual session in Chișinău. What was adopted is more measured than the political statements that preceded it. But the underlying tension – driven by the demand of some states to pursue more restrictive migration policies without being constrained by the Convention – remains. By purporting to define what Convention guarantees substantively mean, the member states have crossed a line that no diplomatic phrasing can neutralise.
Continue reading >>„Das Haftsystem ist in Libyen zu einer Industrie geworden“
Im Mai 2026 schloss der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) das Verfahren zur Bestätigung der Anklagepunkte gegen Khaled El Hishri ab, einen ehemaligen hochrangigen Offizier der libyschen Special Deterrence Force. Die Anklage richtet sich zwar gegen El Hishri persönlich und betrifft Taten, die zwischen 2014 und 2020 im Mitiga-Gefängnis in Tripolis begangen worden sein sollen. Gleichzeitig macht die Anklageschrift ein System sichtbar, dessen Strukturen weit schwerer zu durchdringen sind. Wir haben mit Allison West, Senior Legal Advisor beim European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR), über die Komplexität des Verfahrens gesprochen.
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“Detention Has Become an Industry in Libya”
In May 2026, the International Criminal Court concluded its confirmation of charges hearing against Khaled El Hishri, a former senior officer of Libya's Special Deterrence Force (SDF/RADA). While the charges are directed at an individual for acts committed at Tripoli's Mitiga prison between 2014 and 2020, they emerge from a system that is much harder to disentangle. We asked Allison West, Senior Legal Advisor at European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights, ECCHR, to unpack the complexities of this case and situate it within the broader struggle for justice in Libya.
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Restoring Constitutional Justice in Hungary
On 12 April 2026, Hungarian voters rendered their judgment on the regime that could be described in many ways, but certainly not as a well-functioning liberal democratic constitutional order. Today, the constituent power shall aim at restoring liberal democratic constitutionalism, and more narrowly, constitutional justice. The root of the problem is the current composition of the constitutional court stemming from the winner-takes-all approach of the previous regime. The problematic question, however, is how this can be addressed in line with European constitutionalism.
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Three Readings of One Decision
The dominant reading of the December 2023 unfreezing of funds for Hungary – most recently restated on this blog, following Advocate General Tamara Ćapeta’s February Opinion proposing its annulment – describes that release as “clearly a political ploy at European Council level to get Orbán to lift his veto for support to Ukraine”. The authors argue that the mechanism must be insulated from political bargaining if it is to retain credibility. Their diagnosis of what went wrong is sharp. Their assumption about what would constitute going right may be less secure.
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The Problem Is Not Politicization
When judicial nominations fail, the instinct is to blame politicization. But the collapse of Frauke Brosius-Gersdorf's candidacy for the German Federal Constitutional Court and the historic Senate rejection of Jorge Messias for Brazil's Supreme Court point to a different diagnosis. The problem did not lie in politics as such – but in the Brazilian intuition of “politicagem”: the subordination of judicial selection to short-term electoral performance.
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Fixing the Hungarian Bench
Péter Magyar swept away Fidesz and won a constitutional majority. Yet Orbán packed the courts with his people in the meantime. Should Magyar resort to another round of court-packing? First, legitimate court-packing must have a just cause and must be proportional. Second, the proportionality of such reactive court-packing should in general respect the “paired effect”, although a stronger response may sometimes be justified. Finally, Magyar should not aim just for returning to the status quo but should innovate and build a resilient judiciary that enjoys the trust of the Hungarian people.
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Towards an “Associate Membership” Status for Ukraine?
In a recent letter addressed to the Cypriot Council Presidency and the leaders of the European Commission and the European Council, German Chancellor Friederich Merz proposed a status of “associate membership” for Ukraine. This “innovative solution” is presented as an intermediate step towards full membership. Whereas the political inspiration of Merz’s proposal is clear, its translation into practice raises significant questions.
Continue reading >>Vetoing the President?
Following Fidesz's electoral defeat, the country's new political leadership has pledged to dismantle the legal and institutional structures that enabled sixteen years of democratic backsliding. Yet one of the most powerful obstacles to that project may be hidden in plain sight: the constitutional powers of the President of the Republic. If President Tamás Sulyok chooses to use them aggressively, Hungary could soon find itself facing an unprecedented constitutional crisis.
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On the Renewal of Media Regulation
The opposition’s two-thirds electoral victory has opened the way for a comprehensive renewal of media regulation. Although the legislator must respond to the legacy of the past sixteen years, lasting success can only be achieved if we are also able to learn from the thirty years of experience with Hungarian media governance. Then the harder part will begin: ensuring that the system of media governance operates in accordance with an institutional culture committed to pluralism, dialogue, constitutional values, and sound public policy.
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Constitutionally Anti-constitutional
Peru's presidential runoff on June 7 will decide between Keiko Fujimori and Roberto Sánchez – and whoever wins will become the country's tenth president in ten years. The presidency, however, has seemingly lost its political import. Parliament has effectively ruled Peru for the last decade: it has impeached four presidents since 2020 and rewritten the constitution to introduce a powerful new Senate, set to begin functioning on July 28. This Senate is, in essence, constitutionally anti-constitutional – its powers systematically undermine the very checks and balances that liberal constitutionalism exists to protect.
Continue reading >>Specifying a Fourth Integrity
The European Digital Fairness Act, which the Commission will table at the end of 2026 under the portfolio of Michael McGrath, is being drafted in the grammar of consumer protection. For adults, that grammar holds. For children, it is the wrong category. A child cannot meaningfully consent to the architectural shaping of the very faculties through which she would, as an adult, consent. The missing piece is the specification of a fourth layer of integrity for subjects in formation, grounded in the EU Charter and made operational by the legal occasion that the DFA provides.
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Unfreezing EU Funds Without Melting the Rule of Law
Three years ago, we wrote Frozen, a story about how EU institutions had blocked billions of euros in EU funds on rule of law grounds for Poland and Hungary. After the recent Hungarian parliamentary elections, a much happier scenario is visible in Budapest and Brussels: unfreezing those same funds. But how can this be speedily achieved while honouring the rule of law? This is far from straightforward.
Continue reading >>“A Perfect Constitutional Storm”
Taiwan’s situation is getting more precarious. During Trump’s China visit, he publicly described approved arms sales to Taiwan as a “bargaining chip” with Beijing, while Xi Jinping warned Trump of “clashes and even conflicts” if the Taiwan issue were not handled properly. But also internally, Taiwan is facing a deeper crisis: a protracted conflict between the executive and the legislature, a deadlocked Constitutional Court, and a polarised society. We asked Ming-Sung Kuo, a Reader in Law at Warwick Law School, how Taiwan is navigating this moment.
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„Ein perfekter Verfassungssturm”
Taiwans Lage spitzt sich zu. Bei seinem China-Besuch bezeichnete US-Präsident Trump die genehmigten Waffenverkäufe an Taiwan als „negotiating chip“ gegenüber Peking. Xi Jinping wiederum warnte Trump vor „Konflikten“, sollte man die Taiwan-Frage nicht richtig handhaben. Doch auch innenpolitisch ist die Lage in Taiwan angespannt: ein langwieriger Konflikt zwischen Exekutive und Legislative, ein blockiertes Verfassungsgericht und eine polarisierte Gesellschaft. Wir haben Ming-Sung Kuo, Reader in Law an der Warwick Law School, gefragt, wie Taiwan diesen Moment navigiert.
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The Missing Dimension
Public discourse on the repair of constitutional democracy tends to focus on its political dimensions. The Fidesz period, however, demonstrated that markets and democratic governance are deeply interconnected. The restoration of constitutional democracy, which will inevitably involve the reorganisation of the economy, should therefore prompt reflection in public law discourse on the ways in which markets ought to be structured in democratic societies. Public law scholars must engage seriously with the role that competition law reform can play in this process.
Continue reading >>Hungary’s European Rebirth
As Péter Magyar and his Tisza government took office on 9 May, ending sixteen long years of autocratic capture, the crowds outside the Parliament danced and cheered. Now the new government has a constitutional supermajority and a massive democratic mandate. But unlike Orbán’s supermajority, Magyar’s still has to confront veto players. The Hungarian government has a speedy and lawful option for realising its mandate without lurching into extreme scenarios: Using European law as an interim constitution to evade the roadblocks left in place by the Orbán government.
Continue reading >>More Than a Trade Route
The future regime of navigation in Hormuz and the Persian Gulf will necessarily be part of any long-term peace settlement in the region. At first glance, the path of regional cooperation does not look promising. The current turmoil, however, underscores an inescapable truth: the Gulf’s riparian countries share the same risks and cannot act in isolation to counter them.
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To Identity and Beyond?
Commission v Hungary proved, unsurprisingly, yet another bold leap forward in the Court’s value jurisprudence. Central to the reasoning of the Court has been the notion that Article 2 forms part of “the very identity of the Union as a common legal order”, which popped up five times in the 44 short paragraphs of the Court’s reasoning on Article 2. While much attention has already been paid to the judgment, the role of the Court’s “identity rationale” in the judgment merits a separate examination.
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On Men and their Tractors
In a recent post, Suryapratim Roy discusses the Irish fuel price blockades that took place in April 2026. Most of its leaders identified as farmers, but the protests also had a far-right element. Roy identifies the protestors as a “fossil elite” of wealthy farmers seeking to preserve their own economic interest and characterises the protests as “a marriage of fossil capital and racial capital”. I reflect and respond to a part of Roy’s argument. The answer, I believe, lies in the appropriation by the far-right of a hitherto innocuous indigenous Irish archetype: the Men with Tractors.
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Rebuilding Markets, Restoring Democracy
After sixteen years, Hungary emerges from an era characterised by illiberal governance, democratic backsliding, and the systematic weakening of rule of law institutions. Rebuilding a credible, stable, and predictable legal system will be essential not only for restoring democratic legitimacy internally, but also for reconnecting Hungary to the core economic structures and values of the European Union. Such a transition requires a broader understanding of the rule of law that extends beyond public institutions to the governance of markets and economic relations.
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The Burden of Victory
At first glance, the over two-thirds majority that TISZA is set to enjoy in the new National Assembly seems to make the Hungarian transition 2.0 look much easier than might have been expected. And yet, this does not mean that there are no vital pitfalls. These challenges lie, namely, in restoring robust and meaningful accountability standards for both past and future power holders and, relatedly, in resisting the temptation to hold onto unconstrained power inherited from the predecessors under the guise of political necessity or expediency.
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“Once the Lawyers Move In, You Know the Problem Is Serious”
Last July, the International Court of Justice delivered its unanimous advisory opinion on climate change – and it was unambiguous. Climate obligations are legal, substantive, and enforceable. Eighteen months after we first spoke with Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, Tejas Rao and Markus Gehring from the University of Cambridge about the then-upcoming opinion, we asked them to take stock of what has actually changed: in courts, in multilateral diplomacy, and in the growing coalition of states willing to move ahead without waiting for the holdouts.
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„Wenn die Juristen kommen, wird es ernst“
Letzten Juli hat der Internationale Gerichtshof sein Gutachten zum Klimawandel vorgelegt – und es war eindeutig: Klimaschutzverpflichtungen sind rechtlich verbindlich und durchsetzbar. Anderthalb Jahre nachdem wir erstmals mit Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, Tejas Rao und Markus Gehring von der Universität Cambridge über das damals bevorstehende Gutachten gesprochen hatten, haben wir nachgefragt: Was hat das Gutachten tatsächlich verändert? Und wie steht es um die globale Klimagovernance?
Continue reading >>Shopping Lists and Steppingstones
The member states of the Council of Europe today, in Chișinǎu, Moldova, have agreed on a new Declaration to reform the European Convention of Human Rights. It contains a pick-and-mix of instructions to the Court on how it should reduce the current protections, relativize absolute provisions, and give states more leeway to do what they wish in various contexts. Getting too legal and technical might, however, miss the real point of the Chișinǎu Declaration. It might better be understood as a stepping stone to hardening domestic stances on migration and creating a common political position.
Continue reading >>The Big Lie of Two Thirds Majority
This is the fifth election in a row in which a party has gained a two-thirds majority. A two-thirds majority has long been the magic of Hungarian politics. Namely, it means domestically unlimited power. But the magic of the two-thirds majority is based on an assumption that has turned out to be a lie: that such a special majority guarantees compromise. As a first step towards a truly functioning pluralist democracy, it is time to disenchant the two-thirds majority.
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The Seduction of Constitutional Anti-Orthodoxy
American constitutional law treats “orthodoxy” as verboten. The concept has become a shorthand for the state imposition of belief that the First Amendment most centrally forbids. This anti-orthodoxy rhetoric is potent. It is also conceptually confused and increasingly destabilizing to contemporary First Amendment doctrine. This is especially acute in the undifferentiated and imprecise form it has assumed in cases like Chiles.
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Why the European Defence Community Can Be Revived
How can Europe respond to the rupture in transatlantic relations resulting from Donald Trump's return to the US Presidency and take defence seriously? The European Defence Community (EDC) could be an answer. In a recent blog, Robert Schütze has criticized the idea of reviving the EDC. As the senior jurists involved in the ALCIDE project, we felt compelled to respond.
Continue reading >>Federalism Against Democracy
India, as the world’s largest democracy, is facing a unique challenge in the twenty-first century in managing the relationship between democracy and federalism. How do we historically approach this face-off between the imperatives of democracy and federalism in India today? I suggest that the constitutional and political debates in late colonial India on questions of democracy and federalism show a similar face-off, which fundamentally defined postcolonial India’s shaky tryst with federalism.
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Sex Workers in the Paris Senate
Legal frameworks for remunerated sexual services often reveal a weakness in our democracies: how to protect sex workers as a marginalized group without patronizing them. A bill recently introduced in the French Senate proposes to replace the current End-Demand legislation with full decriminalization. Drafted by a mixed group of interdisciplinary researchers and sex workers of different backgrounds, the bill tackles this weakness head-on – and turned out nuanced and detailed.
Continue reading >>Transitional Justice after Hybrid Regimes in Europe
Academic literature and international legal documents on transitional justice have concentrated on transitions from dictatorships or armed conflicts, while neglecting hybrid regimes. In such regimes, corruption, state-organised plunder of resources, and the gradual demolition of democracy and the rule of law during the ancien régime require exceptional transitional measures. Just as the questions of democracy and the rule of law are not binary, transitional measures after hybrid regimes should also be proportionate. In European cases, the case-law of the ECtHR is mostly relevant.
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Polish Lessons for the Hungarian Transition
The victory of Péter Magyar and TISZA Party in the parliamentary elections of 12 April 2026 may be seen as a useful illustration of the theory of competitive authoritarianism developed by Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way. It suggests that even under uneven political conditions, electoral victory remains possible when an opposition movement is well organized, presents a credible program, and effectively capitalizes on the weaknesses and mistakes of the incumbent government. Consequently, claims about the demise of liberal democracy appear to be premature.
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Climate Change in the High Court of Australia
In May, the High Court of Australia (HCA) will hear MACH Energy Australia v Denman Aberdeen Muswellbrook Scone Healthy Environment Group & Anor (“Denman”), the first climate case to reach Australia’s apex court. The case adds to a growing body of climate jurisprudence in which courts consider whether and how climate impacts must be integrated into environmental impact assessments. However, the Denman case raises a further question: whether the GHG emissions associated with a coal mine can be understood as being likely to cause climate and environmental impacts in a particular “locality”.
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Litigating Externalisation under the Italy-Albania Protocol
On 23 April 2026, Advocate General Emiliou delivered his Opinion in Sedrata (C-414/25), the first of three cases pending before the CJEU concerning the Italy-Albania Protocol. The agreement allows the Italian authorities to use migrant detention centres located on Albanian territory under Italian exclusive jurisdiction and to treat them as equivalent to border or transit zones within the meaning of the Procedures Directive. This construction sits uneasily with the territorial assumptions embedded in the EU asylum acquis.
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Being Rejected is not a Crime
On 26 March 2026, the European Parliament approved the proposed EU Return Regulation, thereby adopting its position for the negotiations with the Council and the Commission. As the Parliament's and the Council's positions differ only marginally, its adoption appears likely. The current draft considerably expands detention and introduces far-reaching derogations, particularly for third-country nationals considered to pose security risks. This ICE-ification of the EU's migration policy and the de facto criminalisation of people on the move pose a threat to fundamental rights within the EU.
Continue reading >>Constitutional Repair!
In this post I shall attempt to map some of the most important points where constitutional repair is necessary as well as the limits of such repair that follow from common European standards. This text is emphatically not a summary of a comprehensive constitutional reform, nor is it a proposal at the level of legislative text. Rather, it outlines fundamental issues which, following discussions and the taking of fundamental political decisions, could lead to a proposal for a correction that needs to be adopted within a short timeframe.
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The Dialectic of Viewpoint Discrimination
On the anniversary of Germany’s unconditional surrender, the Bundesrat today held its first reading of a bill that would criminalise certain statements about Israel under a newly created offence. The drafters invoke Germany’s responsibility to protect Jewish life in bold moral terms. Yet, the legislation they propose plainly denies that very responsibility. The political logic of viewpoint discrimination is inescapable, whatever the intentions.
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Dialektik des Sonderrechts
Am Jahrestag der bedingungslosen Kapitulation lag dem Bundesrat heute zur ersten Beratung ein Gesetzentwurf vor, der Äußerungen über Israel nach neuen Gesichtspunkten unter Strafe stellen soll. Die Autoren des Entwurfs tragen die Verantwortung der Bundesrepublik für den Schutz jüdischer Menschen zwar wichtigtuerisch vor sich her, weisen sie aber mit dem, was sie regeln wollen, zugleich unbewusst weit von sich. Der politischen Logik des Sonderrechts entkommt man nämlich auch mit den besten Absichten nicht.
Continue reading >>Musk v. Altman
It doesn’t happen often that corporate governance litigation raises existential stakes. A prominent exception is the ongoing Musk v. Altman trial, where Elon Musk and Sam Altman dispute over the future of OpenAI, the world's most famous artificial intelligence (“AI”) lab. The dispute hasn’t received much attention in the EU. Nonetheless, despite being held in a US district court over a US company and governed by US state and federal law, the case raises two fundamental issues with important implications for the ongoing European debate over AI regulation.
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The BMW and Mercedes Climate Cases
The Bundesgerichtshof – Germany's highest court of civil jurisdiction – has handed down its first ruling on private climate liability and dismissed the widely discussed lawsuits against BMW and Mercedes. These strategic lawsuits were based on a very specific claim that is hard to replicate in other legal systems. Nevertheless, the rulings contain general considerations that, from a comparative law perspective, reveal a remarkable degree of judicial restraint.
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But First, Implementation
Hungary's future Prime Minister Péter Magyar called on Chief Justice András Zs. Varga to resign, claiming that, together with the President of the Republic, the Prosecutor General, and other leaders of key state institutions, he is a “puppet” of Orbán’s regime. The claim to end Chief Justice Varga’s mandate is legitimate and the proper way to do so is by implementing the ECtHR's Baka judgment
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On Reviving the 1952 European Defence Community
Can we revive the 1952 European Defence Community (EDC) after it failed to get ratified by France and Italy more than 70 years ago? This intriguing – and counterintuitive – idea is currently being explored by an ambitious project called ALCIDE led by Federico Fabbrini and chaired by Sylvie Goulard, which brings together a small number of distinguished legal historians, constitutional lawyers and political scientists.
Continue reading >>The Fuel Price Blockades in Ireland
April 2026 has been the most politically charged month in Ireland in recent memory. Irish roads, ports and refineries across the country were blocked with tractors and heavy agricultural and haulage vehicles over the course of the week starting April 7. Essential services were compromised, and several parts of the country came to a halt. Contrary to media commentary, the blockade enabled a union of fossil capital and racial capital.
Continue reading >>Security Sells
Latin America’s right-wing politicians are now particularly keen to visit the 23-hectare maximum-security prison in El Salvador, the brainchild of authoritarian president Nayib Bukele. Many politicians in the region see it as a silver bullet against gang violence. What they miss is that the model cannot be separated from its authoritarian foundations. The Salvadoran “success” rests on emergency rule, suspended fundamental rights, and a Constitutional Court pushed aside.
Continue reading >>Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah
Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah was a seminal figure in the 20th-century landscape of South Asian and international politics. Her life unfolded at the intersection of private transformation and public upheaval. Born into a family shaped by both Islamic tradition and colonial modernity, she moved between seclusion and Western education before emerging as a scholar, writer, politician and diplomat. She played a role in the formation of Pakistan, the conclusion of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Genocide Convention, as well as in the literary exploration of these political events and the cultural changes of the time.
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The Human Trick
Heute, am Tag der Arbeit, ist ein guter Tag, um über die Arbeit nachzudenken, die wir selbst machen. Hier in der Redaktion des Verfassungsblogs spüren wir deutlich, dass sich gerade etwas verschiebt. Immer mehr Texte, die bei uns ankommen, lesen sich eigentümlich glatt. Diese KI-(de)generierten Texte stammen aus der schönen neuen Welt, doch haben sie keinen echten Ursprung. Sie wurden außerhalb des Körpers geboren: ohne den langwierigen und mühsamen Prozess, eine Idee zu empfangen, zu nähren und in die Welt zu bringen. Was ihnen fehlt, ist eine Person, die etwas erfahren, gelesen und wirklich durchdacht hat.
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The Human Trick
Today, on May Day, is a good day to reflect on the work we do ourselves. We at Verfassungsblog can clearly feel that something is shifting. More and more of the texts arriving in our inboxes read as oddly smooth. These AI-(de)generated texts come from a brave new world, but they have no real origin. They were born outside the body: without the long, laborious process of conceiving an idea, nourishing it, and bringing it into the world. What they lack is a person who has experienced something, read something, really thought it through.
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Avoiding the Turnberry Trap
The Turnberry Deal, widely perceived as involving significant EU concessions, aims to restore a degree of stability after a prolonged period of trade turbulence with the USA. However, its asymmetrical nature may not necessarily achieve a preferred stability. The EU’s assumption that heavy concessions will buy stability risks becoming a trap: it hands the USA the upper hand in trade without guaranteeing that tariffs will not be further used as geopolitical leverage. The US has changed, and so too must the EU, without abandoning the goal of international cooperation.
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Péter Magyar’s Cincinnatus Moment
The big question for Hungary’s democracy is whether Magyar and Tisza will establish a system that is pluralistic and avoids the risks and temptations of two-thirds majorities. Cincinnatus is the hero of Roman legend who saved his country from peril and, once done, returned to his fields. Magyar could become Hungary’s Cincinnatus if he constructed a pluralistic democracy in which many political currents have their space, in which majorities can rule and make decisions and in which courts and independent institutions ensure the rules of the game.
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The Red Lines of European Society
The Court of Justice ruled on 21 April 2026 that the Hungarian law portraying non-heterosexual and non-cisgender persons as dangerous violates the values enshrined in Article 2 TEU. The decision is historic. We focus on what we see as its two central innovations. First, after years of academic controversy, there is now clarity: Article 2 TEU itself is a justiciable provision that sets enforceable red lines as a separate ground in infringement proceedings. And second, the Court advances a collective singular to which it attributes the EU legal order: European society.
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Deregulating Better Regulation
The European Commission's Communication A Simpler, Clearer and Better Enforced EU Rulebook is the most structurally ambitious reform of EU policymaking since the launch of the Better Regulation agenda in 2002, extending its scope for the first time beyond the design of new initiatives to cover their review and enforcement. The Communication reveals a coherent but constitutionally problematic logic. The EU Commission’s procedural safeguards are relaxed upstream, existing EU law is systematically reviewed midstream, and EU law enforcement federalised downstream, all under the legitimising banner of Better Regulation.
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Heavy Artillery, Light Reasoning
In its judgment of 21 April 2026 in Commission v. Hungary (C-769/22), the CJEU took the decisive step: its “value turn”. The Court for the first time applied Article 2 TEU as an autonomous and standalone review standard. The judgment deploys what might be called heavy artillery. Yet, the firepower of the instrument stands in uneasy tension with the lightness of the reasoning marshalled to justify its use. Nonetheless, the critical observations advanced by Riedl ultimately underestimate both the structural logic of the EU legal order and the functional mandate of the Court.
Continue reading >>Mistaking the Tree for the Forest
More than six decades after the assassination of the first prime minister of the newly independent Congo, Patrice Lumumba, and his collaborators Maurice Mpolo and Joseph Okito, Étienne Davignon is the only defendant to stand trial before a criminal court for colonial-era war crimes. The Lumumba litigation marks a historic step forward. But it risks producing the illusion of a legally contained resolution of the colonial past – by individualizing responsibility for a structural crime and offering the Belgian state an opportunity for self-absolution.
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Pioneers Wanted
With full-scale war on the European continent and doubts about US support, the EU still treats this existential security crisis like a regular bureaucratic undertaking. It is against this backdrop that Commissioner Kubilius is expected to engineer a genuine European Defence Union – and in our view, raising the right legal questions amounts to answering them: differentiated integration, pursued by a core group of willing member states, is the way forward.
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An Off-Ramp for the Plaumann Paradox
On 16 April 2026, AG Ćapeta delivered an Opinion in the Medel case (C-555/24) on the standing of NGOs to bring actions for annulment under conditions that they are directly and individually concerned. Instead of copying the ECtHR’s approach in KlimaSeniorinnen, she gives an elegant and simple spin to the Plaumann formula. At its core, AG Ćapeta recognises that associations protecting collective interests have a separate identity of their own with a distinct interest. The Opinion gives the Court an argumentative avenue to finally amend its self-inflicted access to justice paradox.
Continue reading >>Invisible by Design
The EU AI Act will fail to adequately protect trans asylum seekers because it regulates system outputs while the harm lies in the binary assumptions that make their exclusion appear technically compliant. When the Act’s high-risk regime becomes fully applicable on August 2nd, 2026, AI systems for automated decision-making in migration and asylum processes will need to meet stricter compliance requirements. This is an advance in regulatory and constitutional accountability under the EU Charter. It nonetheless leaves untouched the administrative architecture the Act takes for granted.
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Trump Derangement Syndrome or the Foolish Fear of Tyranny
Recently, a diagnosis has spread through American political commentary. Critics of the administration find themselves accused of suffering from Trump Derangement Syndrome (TDS): an inability to identify or critically think about the actions of Donald Trump or his administration objectively. TDS is not the first term invented to pathologise the fear of tyranny. Tyrannophobia, the foolish fear of tyranny, has a longer history.
Continue reading >>Making Abuse More Costly
What happens when executive power in a German federal state falls into the hands of authoritarian populists? Everyone knows by now that this can happen – and will, perhaps rather soon. Elections are scheduled in Saxony-Anhalt and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in September; within six months, the AfD could control two of Germany's 16 state justice ministries. We are taking a close look: with additional editorial capacity, we will follow both states before, during, and after the elections – in a dedicated Spotlight section on Verfassungsblog.
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Den Missbrauch teurer machen
Was passiert, wenn in einem deutschen Bundesland die Exekutivgewalt in autoritär-populistische Hände fällt? Jeder weiß mittlerweile, dass das passieren kann – wahrscheinlich schon ziemlich bald. In Sachsen-Anhalt und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern wird im September gewählt; in einem halben Jahr könnte die AfD zwei der 16 Landesjustizministerien kontrollieren. Wir schauen genau hin: Mit zusätzlichen Kapazitäten in der Redaktion begleiten wir beide Länder vor, während und nach den Wahlen – in einer eigenen Spotlight-Sektion auf dem Verfassungsblog.
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A Constitutional Court without a Constitutional Compass
The ruling in the case of the Commission v. Hungary was eagerly awaited by many, but it will have come as a surprise to few. Public statements by prominent members of the EU Court of Justice indicated a clear desire to extend the applicability of Article 2 TEU. The Court’s findings regarding the Commission’s pleas concerning infringements of the various acts of secondary law are well-motivated, but its reasoning on Article 2 TEU clearly demonstrates the suffocating grip of EU constitutional orthodoxy.
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A Jus Cogens Right to Climate Action
Phasing out fossil fuels is indispensable to meaningful climate action. Yet, significant legal barriers persist. Among the most formidable is the system of international investment law, particularly the mechanism of investor–state dispute settlement. One way to counter this type of legally entrenched climate obstruction is for States to clarify that their right to climate action is a new peremptory norm of international law, as per Article 64 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
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After the War in Iran
The war in Iran and the illegal attacks on the leadership of the religious and military regime indicate a desire to change the political system from outside. Yet the road to a meaningful change lies elsewhere. The beginning of the ceasefire, even temporary, encourages to think about the day after the war. Any reform scenario for Iran that limits itself to macroeconomic stabilization misses the core of the problem. What is needed is not radical liberalization, American style reforms, but a gradual sequenced transition toward a social market economy.
Continue reading >>A Bad Bet for Judicial Vetting
In 2022, Moldova launched an ambitious judicial vetting process to fight corruption in the justice system. To that end, it created special commissions tasked with reviewing the integrity of members of judicial self-governing bodies, as well as senior judges and prosecutors. Because such bodies exercise far-reaching powers over judicial careers and discipline, their own independence is crucial. This independence is now at stake: the ruling majority in Parliament lowered the threshold for appointing members to a simple majority – thereby risking the legitimacy of the vetting process itself.
Continue reading >>Judging the Judges
On 12 March 2026, Korea’s new crime of “legal distortion” (법왜곡죄) entered into force. Judges and prosecutors who intentionally misapply the law to benefit or harm another person now face up to ten years’ imprisonment and suspension of their professional qualifications. The reform comes at a time of fragile public confidence in the judiciary: recent surveys show that trust is shallow and particularly low among younger generations. Yet this remedy risks deepening the very crisis it purports to address.
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Winning an Election Doesn’t Give the Right to Disobey
Barbara Zeller argued on this blog that the way of re-liberalizing the Hungarian democracy is disobeying its Fundamental Law. She finds constitutional disobedience not only justified, but even legally required. I disagree. Disobeying the Constitution is neither politically opportune nor legally permissible. In a democratic society it might even be counter-productive and, as such, dangerous. To overcome the biggest challenge of the incoming government – dealing with the politically packed institutions – I propose cooperation, continuance, and reform rather than disobedience.
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A Second-Class Right
The Spanish Government has recently approved a project for a constitutional amendment to protect the right to a voluntary termination of pregnancy (abortion). This amendment would add a new paragraph to Article 43, on the right to healthcare. While the discussion of constitutional reform is welcome, the current amendment falls short of its promises.
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Swastika in the Polish Parliament
In a recent incident in the Polish Parliament, an extreme right-wing MP, Konrad Berkowicz, displayed a modified Israeli flag bearing a swastika in place of the Star of David while accusing Israel of committing genocide. The ECHR protects severe criticism of governments, allegations of international crimes, and speech that “shocks, offends or disturbs”. Yet the question is whether the use of a Nazi symbol remains protected political expression in a constitutional order shaped by the legacy of Nazism and the Holocaust. In our view, it does not.
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The Question of Democracy Before the Inter-American Court
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has been asked a question that could reshape the relationship between democracy and human rights in the Americas. In 2024, Guatemala submitted a request for an Advisory Opinion on the legal status of democracy under the Inter-American human rights system, in a regional context marked by democratic backsliding, institutional fragility, and growing tensions between elected governments and judicial institutions. The issue is not simply how to define democracy, but how democracy operates within the Inter-American human rights system and what obligations States have in relation to it.
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Two Defeats, One Winner
In the last week, across two continents, two authoritarian governments faced significant blows, not by courts, not by international pressure, not by the slow grind of institutional resistance, but by oppositions that chose, against their fractious instincts, to act unitedly. Together, the two episodes highlight how oppositional party politics play important constitutional and democratic functions, and must find crucial space in the study of comparative constitutional law.
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Cheers, Dear Friends!
Viktor Orbán, as it turns out, can indeed be voted out. And to that I raise my glass of champagne. Cheers, dear friends! The haunting is over – this particular haunting, at any rate. And yet: how much we learned from it and through it and about it. How many concepts were coined in its study. What is populism? That, right there, what they were doing in Hungary.
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Prost, ihr Lieben!
Viktor Orbán kann man, wie sich herausstellt, sehr wohl abwählen. Und darauf erhebe ich mein Glas. Prost, ihr Lieben! Der Spuk hat ein Ende, dieser spezielle Spuk jedenfalls. Was haben wir nicht alles gelernt von und durch und über ihn. Was haben wir nicht alles begriffen. Was ist Populismus? Das da, was die in Ungarn machen.
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Mexico Between Acquiescence and the Politics of Denial
After more than a decade of observations, monitoring, individual communications, reports and an official visit to Mexico, the UN Committee on Enforced Disappearances has now concluded that there are well-founded indications that enforced disappearances have been and continue to be committed in Mexico as crimes against humanity. The decision marks the first time the CED has brought the situation of a State Party to the attention of the General Assembly. It also introduces an important distinction: enforced disappearances cannot be reduced to a single federal policy but may instead engage multi-level state responsibility.
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Last Court Standing
Democracy and the rule of law are in decay globally. In Ecuador, President Noboa continues his attempts to transform the state towards authoritarianism. So far, the Constitutional Court has successfully resisted these attempts and preserved its independence and integrity. Whether it can maintain this position will likely become clear in the coming days. Two rulings are pending that are crucial for the survival of Ecuadorian democracy. For this reason, the court is once again facing drastic intimidation.
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When Courts Turn Into Justices
The Brazilian Supreme Federal Court is currently facing the most severe crisis of judicial governance in its democratic history: the consolidation of individualized judicial power at the expense of collegiality. The recent Banco Master scandal exposes how conflicts of interest, opaque decision-making, and the concentration of authority in individual justices can erode the institutional foundations of a constitutional court. India experienced a very similar crisis back in 2018. The Indian episode offers a comparative mirror of remarkable clarity for understanding what is now unfolding in Brazil.
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Neutralised (Right to) Strike
On 13 March 2026, the European Committee of Social Rights published the decision concerning the right to strike in essential public services (EPS) in Italy. On the one hand, the decision found that the notion of EPS is too broad and underspecified. On the other hand, it found no violation of the European Social Charter relating to the (absence of) effective judicial review. The decision overlooks the constitutional and institutional peculiarities of the Italian system and shows a limited understanding of procedural realities, which effectively neutralise the judicial oversight.
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Why Primacy Operates Differently in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice
The EPPO’s anti-corruption mandate meets a constitutional constraint in Greece, where only Parliament may initiate proceedings against ministers. The familiar logic of EU primacy offers no easy way through, as Union law itself leaves gaps and accommodates national procedural orders. What emerges instead is a structural limit: in criminal law, integration proceeds within – not against – constitutional tradition.
Continue reading >>The Case for Constitutional Disobedience
With Péter Magyar’s landslide victory in the Hungarian parliamentary elections in April 2026, hopes of a return to democracy have rarely been as high as now. The electoral victory has the potential to turn into a constitutional moment for Hungary, yet it is overshadowed by a profound constitutional dilemma: Is it justified to disobey the constitution to rebuild democracy and the rule of law? I argue that constitutional disobedience may not only be justified but legally required in favour of substantive constitutional values and democratic rebuilding.
Continue reading >>Two-Thirds Majority Is Essential but Not Enough
We can start now rebuilding our democracy and constitutionalism. TISZA Party, led by Péter Magyar, secured a constitutional majority on 12 April 2026. This broad democratic authorization allows for the creation of a new constitution, but it will take time, a lot of effort, and careful consideration. A constitutional majority provides an exceptional form of democratic authorization. Yet, especially in reconstruction contexts, it risks reproducing the very patterns of concentrated and exclusionary lawmaking that characterized the previous regime.
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Marketplace of Malpractice
Every day we depend upon the counsel of our doctors, lawyers, engineers, accountants, architects, and pharmacists. Yet, in a startling decision, the Supreme Court recently struck down Colorado’s ban on “conversion therapy” for minors in an opinion that threatens to undermine the professional advice on which we all constantly rely. The Court's reasoning is simply nonsense in the context of the professional speech that all of us rely on all the time.
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State Bodies
India's New Trans Rights Act reorganises the terms on which transgender lives become intelligible to law. Its animating logic, that trans identity is an “acquirable characteristic” the state must verify rather than an irreducible human experience it must recognise, directly confronts the constitutional architecture erected by the Indian Supreme Court in previous case law. The Act re-medicalises identity, re-bureaucratises recognition, and risks criminalising both community kinship structures and legitimate gender-affirming care.
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Beyond Intermediaries
Recent investigations into the dissemination of illegal content generated by Grok have exposed a structural gap in the EU’s legislative framework: while the Digital Services Act equips the European Commission with far-reaching powers over large online platforms, it does not clearly capture generative AI systems per se. As a result, the Commission may be able to act against platforms integrating such systems (such as X), but not necessarily against the systems themselves (such as Grok). This asymmetry raises a broader question that has increasingly gained attention in policy and academic debates: can generative AI applications be brought within the scope of the DSA?
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Neither What Italy Needed, Nor What it Deserved
On 22 and 23 March 2026, the Italian electorate rejected a constitutional reform of the judiciary. This vote, while unlikely to deal a decisive blow to Meloni’s government, has already had notable political repercussions – most prominently, the resignations of two key figures within the Ministry of Justice. However, when situating the reform in the broader Italian political context, it goes too far to conclude that it would have pushed Italy in a direction similar to Hungary’s.
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After Collapse
Ten years after the Hungarian government began its campaign against Central European University, Hungary now stands on the brink of a political turning point: elections that could finally shake the system built by Fidesz. With opposition leader Péter Magyar leading in the polls, an old prediction is suddenly coming true. Yet it raises a more unsettling question: even if the system collapses, can Hungary simply rebuild what once proved so vulnerable to illiberal capture?
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Nach dem Kollaps
Zehn Jahre nachdem die ungarische Regierung ihre Kampagne gegen die Central European University begonnen hat, steht Ungarn nun an der Schwelle zu einem politischen Wendepunkt: Wahlen, die das von Fidesz errichtete System erstmals ins Wanken bringen könnten. Mit Oppositionsführer Péter Magyar an der Spitze der Umfragen bewahrheitet sich plötzlich eine alte Prognose. Zugleich drängt sich eine beunruhigendere Frage auf: Selbst wenn das System zusammenbricht – kann Ungarn einfach das wiederaufbauen, was sich einst als so anfällig für illiberale Vereinnahmung erwiesen hat?
Continue reading >>A Win That Isn’t
Last week, the U.S. government asked the Supreme Court to bless its attempt to put the country’s citizenship attribution rule into the service of its anti-immigrant agenda. At issue was the constitutionality and legality of the President’s Executive Order 14160. It seeks to deny citizenship to children born to non-citizen mothers who are undocumented or lawfully but temporarily present and non-citizen fathers who do not possess a green card. After Wednesday’s oral argument, there is broad consensus that the Court is unlikely to do so.
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Beating (Authoritarian) Populism with (Democratic) Populism
Viktor Orbán, Hungary’s prime minister since 2010, is set to lose the parliamentary elections on 12 April 2026. According to recent polls, Fidesz’ main rival, centre-right Tisza, seems to be within reach of attaining a two-thirds constitutional majority. While this may provide conditions for re-establishing democratic institutions, it also implies that Tisza would not be constrained by any meaningful democratic controls. Avoiding the double trap of meeting populist expectations and stabilizing institutionally unconstrained powers are two major tasks the new government needs to perform.
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Three Lessons from the UN Declaration on Enslavement
On 25 March 2026, the United Nations General Assembly adopted, led by African and Caribbean states, the Declaration on the Trafficking of Enslaved Africans and Racialised Chattel Enslavement of Africans as the Gravest Crime Against Humanity. The Declaration can be read as operating within the language of foundational instruments of international law while simultaneously pushing their limits through a set of decisive doctrinal moves. Seen in this light, the Declaration offers at least three lessons for international law today.
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Holding Fast
Perhaps the most memorable line in Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises appears in an otherwise minor exchange. Bill Gorton asks the dissolute, perpetually broke Mike Campbell how he went bankrupt. “Two ways,” Campbell replies. “Gradually, and then suddenly.” Campbell’s road to ruin will strike a familiar chord for those of us who study the rule of law in Turkey. After gradual and continuous deterioration, March 2026 will stand apart. It marks one full year since Ekrem İmamoğlu was placed in detention and his trial formally began.
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Criminalization without Harm
On March 4, 2026, the Georgian Parliament passed yet another wave of anti-democratic changes to the Law on Grants and the Criminal Code. The law now criminalizes political expression if individuals or civil society organizations receive foreign support without prior government authorization. Beyond clear violations of freedom of expression and association, the Georgian case reveals a structural gap in criminal law theory and practice – the lack of substantive limits on criminalization. At the same time, the Georgian case shows that this need not be so: at least two concrete rules against criminalization emerge from the Georgian case.
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Weaponizing Necessity
On March 30, 2026, reports indicated that the US would allow a Russian oil tanker carrying 730,000 barrels of crude oil to dock in Cuba, delivering much-needed fuel to an island that had faced an effective US oil blockade since January 29, 2026. The arrival underscored the severity of Cuba’s energy crisis, produced by a deliberate escalation of US economic coercion, using both sanctions and tariffs. As tools of economic warfare, tariffs operate as forms of state crime that produce systemic harm and human suffering in Cuba and across the region.
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The IOC’s Great Leap Backwards on Genetic Sex Testing
On 26 March, the International Olympic Committee released its Policy on the Protection of the Female (Women’s) Category in Olympic Sport. Now, to be eligible for the Olympic competitions, all women and girls will have to undergo a genetic test that screens for the SRY gene. This sharp policy change has been in the cards since Kirsty Coventry took the helm of the IOC last year. This post provides a first critical analysis of this U-turn on genetic sex testing, revealing its scientific, procedural, and legal shortcomings.
Continue reading >>The Frequencies of Freedom
On 26 February, the CJEU found that not renewing the license of the government-critical radio channel Klubrádió violates EU law (case C 92/23). The judgment constitutionally foregrounded media freedom as a central benchmark for the enforcement of telecom rules. Moreover, it rejected Hungary’s argument of formal legal compliance and focused on the holistic silencing potential of the respective decision. Finally, the Court recognised the imperative for a domestic regulatory framework that effectively safeguards media freedom and pluralism.
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Amalia González Caballero de Castillo Ledón
“Will we women have the strength necessary to do away with the traditional Mexican concept of a democracy without women?” What sounds like an oxymoron today was the very real question women all around the world had to face in the 20th century. Fortunately, the answer to this question posed by Amalia González Caballero de Castillo Ledón would eventually be affirmative – after 24 years of struggle to obtain women’s suffrage.
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Poland’s “Illegal Judges”
For the first time, the CJEU has called for a “legislative framework” to remedy the systemic problem of irregularly appointed judges in Poland’s judicial system in its judgment of 24 March 2026 in Case C-521/21. Until such time, the CJEU has ruled that neo-judges attached to ordinary courts may only be recused on a case-by-case basis. However, such an individual assessment is not required for the neo-judges appointed to courts of last resort. The CJEU’s twofold approach prioritises system stability over the individual right to effective judicial protection.
Continue reading >>Litigating Human Rights of the Mind
Last week, two U.S. courts for the first time found Meta and Google (YouTube) liable for inflicting harm on users and for violating consumer protection law. These rulings have a signalling effect on Europe, and initial reactions have already placed great hope in them. Human rights organisations celebrated them as a “watershed” for big tech accountability. The rulings were based on consumer protection law and negligence (tort law). Nonetheless, they could arguably be a potential driver for human rights litigation.
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Selectivity of Religious Ethos on Trial
On 17 March 2026, the CJEU decided in C‐258/24 (Katholische Schwangerschaftsberatung) that a Catholic association cannot dismiss an employee on the ground that she has left the Catholic Church while simultaneously employing non-Catholics for the same assignment. The judgment provides a contextualised concept of loyalty, differentiating between the loyalty to the Church and the loyalty to the religious employer. This nuanced approach towards a tiered system of duties of loyalty may foster convergence between national and European case law.
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No More Manels
In the email signature of a former UN Special Rapporteur was a sentence that has stayed with me: “I do not join manels.” A “manel”, now widely defined as an all-male panel, is not simply descriptive. It reflects structural patterns in who is recognised as an expert and who is not. On 31 March 2026, the University of Cyprus is holding an event on the status and future of the Sovereign Base Areas. All speakers are male. Are there no female academics at the University of Cyprus who could speak?
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Out of Bounds
A planned homecoming for Croatia’s handball team in Zagreb escalated into a constitutional dispute when the national government overrode the city’s refusal to host a controversial nationalist singer. What followed was not only a conflict over local authority, but a test of the constitutional limits on state power. At the same time, symbols tied to Croatia’s fascist past resurfaced at the center of public celebration, backed by political actors. The episode exposes how quickly legal boundaries and historical consensus can come under strain.
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The Playbook of Repression
India is the world’s largest democracy. It is also increasingly a democracy that is eating itself from within. Under the Bharatiya Janata Party governments of Narendra Modi, now in their third consecutive term, the formal architecture of democratic governance remains intact: elections are held, courts sit, and newspapers continue to be published. This post is an attempt to make sense of what is happening.
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Dignity at the End
On 11 March 2026, the Supreme Court of India allowed the withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment in the case of Harish Rana v. Union of India. The Court’s acceptance of non-voluntary passive euthanasia through a best-interests paradigm might seem to be normatively attractive in certain hard cases, but it ultimately risks undermining patient autonomy and leading to ableist assumptions in the absence of a more demanding, procedurally sound account of substituted judgment and safeguards.
Continue reading >>Anatomy of an Escalation
Deepfakes are currently being cast as a startling new threat. They dominate headlines, raise difficult legal questions, and fuel technocratic debates on regulation. One prominent example is the legislative initiative put forward by Stefanie Hubig, German Federal Minister of Justice, aimed at specifically tackling digital violence and the abuse of deepfake technologies. However, we must not overlook the true scale of the problem: deepfakes are not the cause, but the latest symptom. They represent a technological upgrade for a form of violence deeply embedded in analogue power structures.
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Anatomie einer Eskalation
Deepfakes erscheinen in der öffentlichen Debatte jetzt als neue Bedrohung. Sie produzieren Schlagzeilen, geben Anlass für neue Gesetzesinitiativen und technokratische Diskussionen. So will Bundesjustizministerin Stefanie Hubig mit einem aktuellen Entwurf gezielt gegen digitale Gewalt und Deepfake-Missbrauch vorgehen. Doch wir sollten die gesamtgesellschaftliche Dimension dieses Problems nicht übersehen: Deepfakes sind nicht Ursache, sondern das jüngste Symptom. Sie sind ein technisches Upgrade für eine Gewalt, die tief in unseren analogen Machtverhältnissen wurzelt, und entlang sozialer Unterschiede systematisch diskriminiert.
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Tyranny’s Useful Idiot
In the aftermath of the US-Israeli attack on Iran, the US and Israel attempted to portray the attack as the continuation of an ongoing conflict, self-defence, as well as a humanitarian effort. However, most international lawyers condemned the attack as “manifestly illegal”. In response, they argued that the illegality “must be weighed against the principle of reality”, “given the murderous nature of the Iranian regime”. This narrative characterises international law as tyranny’s useful idiot. In reality, it serves as a justification to abandon the law as a practice to legitimise political actions.
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Towards a Legal Concept of Digital Well-Being
The European Commission's preliminary finding on TikTok’s addictive design from last month might be a game-changer for protecting users’ digital well-being under EU law. The Commission’s focus moves beyond illegal content on the platform to the design of the platform itself. For the DSA to make this enforceable, “digital well-being” needs to be operationalised in a way that regulators and platforms can actually measure and mitigate. This blog post begins with the Commission's findings to advance the first steps toward a theory of digital well-being within the EU platform regulation framework.
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Hollowing Out Human Rights
In less than two months, the Council of Europe is set to consider the adoption of a Political Declaration intended at “rebalancing” the European Convention on Human Rights in immigration contexts. These developments have implications for the connected rights commitments made under the Belfast/Good Friday Agreement of 1998. If the 1998 Agreement’s rights commitments start from, and extend beyond, the ECHR rights, this cannot be reconciled with efforts to water down those rights and shackle the interpretive role of the Strasbourg Court.
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Blocked Without Explanation
In recent weeks, several X (Twitter) and Meta users have reported that their posts and accounts were blocked in India following government orders issued under Section 69A of the Information Technology Act, 2000. According to reports, affected users received automated notifications from X stating that their posts had been blocked in response to a legal demand attributed to the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. These blocking orders highlight a broader problem with India’s internet blocking regime.
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Copyrighting Voice and Image
With the increasing proliferation of deepfakes, Denmark has become the first country in the EU to specifically protect one’s image and voice through a new legislative initiative. As of 31 March 2026, a new intellectual property right is expected to enter into force, modelled as a neighbouring right to copyright and specifically designed to protect a person’s voice and physical appearance. Traditionally, voice and image have been protected as personality rights. The new legislation reconceptualises them as intellectual property rights, making them potentially transferable and commercially exploitable.
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No, Grazie
Over the weekend, Italians resoundingly rejected the Meloni government’s constitutional reform on the overhaul of the judiciary via referendum. With the “No” side receiving 53.2% of the popular support, with an unexpectedly high turnout at 55.7%, this is Meloni’s first political defeat since becoming Prime Minister in 2022. The consequences of the referendum show that Italian checks and balances are stronger than one might have feared. As Meloni is likely to adjust her strategy, and with new electoral reforms on the horizon, Italian democratic resilience will soon face another real test.
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A Deal Is a Deal
Veto threats are ordinary currency in Brussels. A veto against an agreed compromise, used to force concessions on an unrelated dispute and to stage a domestic election campaign, is not. The events of 19 March 2026 were serious not only because Viktor Orbán blocked money for Ukraine, but because he did so after having promised in December 2025 not to stand in the way. This time Orbán went too far – if the other leaders fail to respond effectively, they will be teaching everyone that the most profitable strategy is blackmail.
Continue reading >>Giving Answers, Raising Questions
A few weeks ago, the Czech Constitutional Court introduced an AI-powered legal chatbot directly on its official website, allowing users to ask questions in natural language and receive answers that synthesise the Court’s case law. At first glance, the innovation appears to offer a more convenient way to navigate constitutional jurisprudence. Yet the chatbot does more than help users find decisions. By selecting relevant cases, synthesising their meaning, and presenting the result as an answer to a concrete question, it inserts a new interpretive layer between the Court and the public.
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Zheng Yuxiu
As the first female lawyer in China, Zheng Yuxiu made her mark on legal history. Her achievement was no accident. It rested on a lifelong willingness to question traditions and go her own way – a way that led her through revolution, state-building and women’s emancipation in early twentieth-century China.
Continue reading >>My Voice, My Choice
The European Citizens’ Initiative My Voice, My Choice for safe and accessible abortion, signed by over 1.2 million people, has proven remarkably successful. On 26 February 2026, the Commission announced that it will link abortion services to the European Social Fund Plus, thereby effectively enabling Member States to use EU funds to provide these services to women across the Union. While the Commission did not establish a new European right to abortion in a new law, it has effectively provided European budgetary support for abortion services for the first time.
Continue reading >>Another Click in the Wall
The Australian social media ban for children under 16 set in motion a regulatory trend across Europe. Turkey is next in line: On 4 March, a draft law imposing a social media ban on children under 15 and restrictions on children aged 15 and older was introduced in the Grand National Assembly. Although the Turkish approach offers a more nuanced model by introducing a two-tiered system, it appears that some of the central flaws of the current trend are not overcome: it ignores the potential adverse effects of excluding children from the modern public squares.
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Fourteen Years for a Mere Designation
On 5 March 2026, in its C-613/24 judgment, the CJEU fined Portugal for €10 million for its failure to comply with a 2019 judgment (C-290/18) on the Habitats Directive. In addition, the Court imposed a daily penalty payment of €41,250 until the judgment is fully complied with. This ruling is in many ways arguably a straightforward enforcement case. However, it demonstrates that enforcement action even for basic implementation simply takes too long. In addition, it highlights the need for follow-up action under Article 260 of the TFEU to ensure that judgments are actually implemented.
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Letter from Beirut
I find myself writing these words no longer from Beirut, but about it – my professional home. It is a city to which I am deeply bound, one that was the subject of my doctoral thesis over twenty-five years ago, and where I have had the honour of directing the Orient-Institut Beirut (OIB). The asymmetric war between Israel and Hizbollah reignited on 2 March 2026, and once again forced Lebanese civilians south of Beirut to flee through the ruins of the last war. EU member states must find an independent, credible voice. This is not an anti-American stance; it is the fundamental duty of a democracy to act in accordance with its constitution and international law.
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Brief aus Beirut
Ich schreibe diesen Text leider nicht mehr aus, sondern über Beirut, meine berufliche Heimat. Die Stadt, der ich tief verbunden bin, über die ich vor über 25 Jahren meine Doktorarbeit schrieb und in der ich das Orient-Institut der Max-Weber-Stiftung leite. Am 2. März 2026 brach erneut der asymmetrische Krieg zwischen Israel und Hizbollah aus und vertrieb die libanesische Zivilbevölkerung südlich von Beirut erneut aus den Bauruinen des letzten Krieges. Die EU-Staaten müssen jetzt eine eigenständige, glaubwürdige Stimme finden. Das ist keine antiamerikanische Geste; es ist die Pflicht einer Demokratie, nach ihrer Verfassung und dem Völkerrecht zu handeln.
Continue reading >>Beyond Bilateralism
On March 19, 2026, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) rendered a historic, unanimous judgment in Sovereignty over the Sapodilla Cayes/Cayos Zapotillos (Belize v. Honduras) – Application by Guatemala for Permission to Intervene. The ICJ has traditionally been extremely cautious in permitting third-state interventions in cases, but it has now responded to ongoing critiques of that position and has opened up the possibilities for intervention in meaningful ways. In some ways, it may have shifted its approach to intervention toward a more permissive model, similar to that of many constitutional courts.
Continue reading >>Jambato, the Harlequin Toad, the Plaintiff
Frogs and toads are making headlines defending their constitutional rights. In a successful Rights of Nature case in Ecuador, the Jambato – a toad with an orange belly and black back – has now stopped an infrastructure project in Angamarca. RoN cases are often told as David vs. Goliath stories: Indigenous communities or grassroots environmental movements defeat overmighty companies or state agencies in court. The Jambato case illustrates that this narrative tends to oversimplify the conflicts behind RoN cases. They are often shaped by complex power dynamics and deep disagreements within the affected communities.
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Peoples Across Time
A pending advisory opinion before the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights raises a question that is novel within the African regional human rights system: can human rights law protect future generations against climate harm? The open-ended notion of “peoples” in the African Charter offers a doctrinal basis for embedding intergenerational justice. Read in light of Article 24 and the Charter’s collective architecture, it could give concrete legal meaning to obligations owed across time.
Continue reading >>Statement on German Foreign Policy in Light of the U.S. and Israeli Attacks on Iran
As scholars specializing in International Law and International Relations, we are concerned about the German government’s response to the attack launched by the United States and Israel against the Islamic Republic of Iran on February 28, 2026. The German federal government’s statements to date do not clearly condemn this action. This violates international law and thus contributes to the further erosion of the rules-based and institutional order in Europe and in the world.
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Losing Liberal Democracy
On March 17th, the Swedish-based Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Institute released its 2026 annual Democracy Report. “The speed with which American democracy is currently dismantled is unprecedented in modern history,” the report writes. What is happening within our institutions now must be viewed in tandem with V-Dem’s assessment to understand how we have lost our liberal democracy and are presently at risk of capitulating further.
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Limiting Commission Discretion in EU Funding Conditionality
When the Commission sets the criteria for releasing EU funds, can it later decide not to follow them? Advocate General Ćapeta’s Opinion in Parliament v Commission observes that the Commission prematurely released funds despite Hungary not fulfilling many pre-established conditions. The Commission itself had set these criteria. This is part of a broader pattern of conditionality compliance not always being taken particularly seriously.
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Condemning the Counterstrike Without the Cause
On 12 March 2026, the United Nations Security Council adopted a resolution condemning Iran’s retaliatory strikes against Gulf states and Jordan, declaring them a “breach of international law and a serious threat to international peace and security.” While the resolution is silent on the ongoing US-Israeli bombing campaign, the larger problem is structural. Under the ius ad bellum framework the resolution purports to apply, the lawfulness of a use of force cannot be assessed in isolation from the use of force that preceded it.
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Protecting Democracy Through International Law
While the 2023 presidential election marked a pro-democratic turning point for Guatemala, authoritarian forces continue to pressure the newly elected government to this day. In light of this, Guatemala’s pro-democratic government requested an advisory opinion on the protection of democracy and political rights from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. This week, from 17 to 20 March 2026, the IACtHR will convene the public hearings. I argue that Guatemala’s pro-democratic government turned to international law to generate resources for its domestic struggle against national authoritarian forces.
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Bringing the Courts to the Constitution
On 27 February 2026, the National Assembly of the Republic of Korea passed an amendment bill to the Constitutional Court Act introducing constitutional complaints against court judgments, 38 years after the Constitutional Court’s establishment. This amendment marks a watershed moment for constitutional justice in Korea. By bringing judicial decisions within the scope of constitutional complaint, the amendment closes a long-standing gap in the protection of constitutional rights and resolves an institutional anomaly that had effectively placed the judiciary beyond constitutional review.
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Does International Law Prohibit the Assassination of State Leaders?
Recently, the targeting of Khamenei was presented as having eroded an international norm against assassination, raising the question of which norm against assassination the authors had in mind. Under positive international law, however, no general norm prohibits the killing of State leaders – understood here as the traditional troika of heads of State, heads of government, and ministers for foreign affairs – although different rules and regimes may afford special protection to such leaders in certain circumstances.
Continue reading >>The Enduring Delusion of a War of Civilizations
The United States administration has offered various mutually inconsistent justifications for its war against Iran, from regime change to pressure from Israel to self-defence for the homeland. If the people of Iran are seen by the Trump administration as adversaries in a global battle of civilizations and as enduring enemies of our “way of life”, then international law will be a fallacy and war inevitable, if not desirable. Peaceful co-existence will be just a temporary modus vivendi.
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The Nobel Peace Prize
Nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize closed on January 31. Now, the Norwegian Nobel Committee faces the difficult task of deciding on a worthy winner of this prize. The criteria upon which they base that decision is a few brief lines in Alfred Nobel’s 1895 final will, originally written in Swedish. Yet the English translation of the will hardly fully captures Nobel’s intentions. The prize seeks to benefit the work of those who pursue peace among nations as well as those who promote peace within them.
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Freiheit finden wir doch alle dufte
Linke Buchhandlungen, die sich um einen vom Bundeskulturbeauftragten ausgelobten staatlichen Förderpreis bewerben. Die danach streben, vom deutschen Staat ausgezeichnet zu werden für ihre Verdienste um das Schöne, Wahre und Gute. Richtig linke Buchhandlungen, mind you, die Regale vollgepackt mit den Klassikern revolutionärer Theorie und Praxis, die verletzt und empört darüber sind, dass sie nicht für förderwürdig gehalten werden von der bundesdeutschen Exekutivgewalt. Ist das nicht regelrecht rührend? Was für ein Vertrauensbeweis in die liberale Demokratie ist das denn?
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Everyone Agrees That Freedom is Kind of Swell
Left-wing bookshops applying for an award handed out by the Federal Government Commissioner for Culture? Striving to be honoured by the German state for their service to the good, the true and the beautiful? Does the current Commissioner, Wolfram Weimer, now in hot water for his decision to strike those left-wing bookshops off the winners' list, even realise how amazing this is? Truly left-wing bookshops, mind you. Shelves crammed with the classics of revolutionary theory and practice. How much more disarmingly faithful in the virtues of liberal democracy can you be?
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Sexual Citizenship via Free Movement
Yesterday, in the judgment of Shipov, the Court of Justice decided how EU citizenship can shape the recognition of gender identity within the Member States. Yet not through anti-discrimination law, but through the constitutional logic of free movement. The Court of Justice held that EU law precludes national legislation preventing a Union citizen from changing gender-related data in civil-status records in relation to the exercise of free movement. The Court thereby further expands the role of Union citizenship as a vehicle for protecting personal identity and dignity.
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From Capacity to Necessity
The tension in the room was almost tangible when the President of the European Commission announced on Friday, 27 February 2026, that the EU-Mercosur Agreement would be applied provisionally. After a week of uncertainty and despite widespread opposition and resistance – in a world that is drifting once again into great power politics – the EU thereby sends a strong signal that it remains committed to multilateralism and continues to be a reliable partner on the global stage. The Commission’s decision is arguably not only legally justified, but also politically imperative.
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New Old Kazakhstan
On 15th March 2026, Kazakhstan will hold a nationwide referendum in which voters will decide whether to adopt a new Constitution proposed by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev. The proposed Constitution marks a significant departure from the current 1995 one: amendments affect 77 articles, or over 80% of the current Constitution. The official reason for the amendments is to move away from consolidated presidential governance; however, the proposed Constitution might have the opposite effect.
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Testing “Mutual Sincere Cooperation”
On 11 March, the European Parliament voted to accept a revised Framework Agreement governing relations between itself and the European Commission. The reform strengthens Parliament’s role in shaping the Commission’s work programme, monitoring international negotiations, and scrutinising emergency measures. Yet the Council has reacted sharply, objecting to Parliament’s claim to equal treatment with the member states. The episode reveals deeper tensions in the EU’s institutional balance.
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When the Protector Becomes the Prosecutor
On 26 February 2026, the Supreme Court of India, acting on its own motion (suo motu) and without any petitioner before it, issued a remarkable order. It banned a Class 8 social science textbook published by the National Council for Educational Research and Training, directed the physical seizure of all copies in circulation, ordered the removal of the book from every digital platform, threatened its authors with criminal contempt proceedings, and barred classroom instruction based on its contents — all in response to a chapter that described corruption in the judiciary and case backlogs as institutional challenges.
Continue reading >>An Abdication of Legal and Historical Responsibility
There can be little doubt that the US and Israeli attacks on Iran contravene the prohibition on the use of force while Iran’s retaliation goes beyond what would be permissible under the right to self-defence. While the German government has criticised Iran’s violent crackdown on the demonstrations and was quick to denounce its retaliatory attacks across the region, no such condemnation has been forthcoming with respect to the US and Israel. This approach to international law is both hypocritical and an abdication of historical responsibility. It is also strategically short-sighted and dangerous.
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After Khamenei
On 8 March 2026, Mojtaba Khamenei, Ali Khamenei’s second son, was announced as the third Supreme Leader, the Wali-ye Faqih. With this appointment, the regime signals its determination to preserve the facade of constitutional continuity surrounding Velayat-e Faqih. The succession of Mojtaba Khamenei brings into view the regime’s inability to apply its own legitimising principles to its rule, as well as the deep constitutional tensions on which this system rests. While alternatives such as a secular democratic order, proposed by prominent opposition figures, are gaining traction, the remnants of the Islamic Republic are confronted with the erosion of the system they upheld for decades.
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Should Guns Be Able to Say No?
What if firearms themselves could refuse illegal commands? Recent technological advances have brought new possibilities that might help reduce these attacks within reach. It is now possible for firearms to be programmed to prevent users from firing at blatantly illegal targets. Now that this is the case, should states adopt legislation that forces manufacturers to incorporate that technology in their future production?
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Private Power, Public Values
It is not every day that a major AI company invokes constitutional values against the US government. Anthropic – the US-American AI company behind Claude – declined the US military’s request for unrestricted access to its AI tools, citing worries about domestic mass surveillance and the use of its technology in fully autonomous weapons. Recognising digital corporations as potential drivers of constitutional rights runs counter to the most recent literature on digital regulation and digital sovereignty. But perceiving them as such remains crucial.
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Killing Khamenei
In a recent post on this blog, Sophie Duroy and Luca Trenta have offered an important and timely analysis of the normalisation of assassination as a tool of Statecraft, arguing that the killing of Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei on 28 February 2026 represents “a new stage in the erosion of the international norm against assassination”. The concerns they voice are well-founded. The deliberate targeting and killing of a sitting head of State is a worrying precedent. In this post, I want to focus on one seemingly minor claim that runs through the Duroy and Trenta analysis: the assertion that Khamenei was killed “outside an armed conflict”.
Continue reading >>“The Unwillingness to Call This Illegal Is a Terrible Mistake”
Five Questions to Oona A. Hathaway
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„Die Weigerung, dies als Völkerrechtsbruch zu benennen, ist ein schwerer Fehler“
Fünf Fragen an Oona A. Hathaway
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From Directness to Foreseeability
On 18.12.2025, the CJEU issued its judgment on the appeal against the General Court’s Order in W.S. and Others v Frontex. The judgment is uniquely important as the CJEU deviated from the academics’ view that the causal inquiry shall be conducted in two steps and used instead the causal test of directness. Given that adjudicating fora is increasingly relying on the test of foreseeability, the CJEU should implement this method where Frontex and the EU Member States are involved in refoulement-related damage.
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Patchwork Law (Love)
The ruling coalition came to power on a clear promise: to liberalize abortion law and introduce legal recognition for same-sex couples. A new bill on cohabitation agreements seeks to grant both same-sex and opposite-sex couples selected rights currently reserved for married spouses, aiming to make everyday family life easier while deliberately preserving a clear legal and symbolic distinction from marriage. The result is a piecemeal framework that risks creating second-class family relationships while leaving some key issues unresolved or overly complicated.
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Parliamentary Immunity as a Privilege
On 5 February 2026, the Court of Justice delivered its judgment in Case C-572/23 P, annulling the European Parliament’s decisions of 9 March 2021 waiving the parliamentary immunity of Carles Puigdemont, Antoni Comín and Clara Ponsatí. In particular, the CJEU requires the rapporteur of the committee responsible for the reasoned proposal to be insulated from even indirect political links with the party that instigated the underlying criminal proceedings. This reinforces the perception of immunity as a personal privilege rather than a functional safeguard.
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Forays Into Reality
For decades, xenophobia has been relegated to the margins of the UN treaty body system: it was routinely invoked alongside racism but rarely treated as a legal problem in its own right. On February 3, two UN treaty bodies issued two joint interpretative comments on eradicating xenophobia against migrants and others perceived as such. For all their efforts, they dodge the all-important structural tension arising from migration governance: xenophobia is embedded in an international system that recognises the sovereign impulse to police migration not only as a (much critiqued) prerogative but, crucially, as a legitimate objective.
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Setting It in Stone
Is "business as usual" in conflict zones officially a crime? As France’s Court of Cassation prepares to rule on the Lafarge case, the legal focus shifts from the company’s commercial motives to its operational awareness. By prioritizing "knowledge" over "criminal purpose," this landmark decision could dismantle the final legal shield for corporations operating alongside atrocity crimes.
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The Iran War and the Dutch Retreat from International Law
On 2 March, the Netherlands’ new Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tom Berendsen, stated that he could have “understanding” for the American and Israeli attacks on Iran. According to the minister, we must thus pursue a more realistic course in which there is only limited room for international law. Such a relativization of international law, and its selective application, is troubling, not only from a moral perspective, but above all from a constitutional one.
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Lost in Translation
In January 2026, president Karol Nawrocki vetoed the Polish draft law set to implement the Digital Services Act. The censorship concerns he invoked reveal a limited understanding of the realities of today’s online environment. Nearly a year after J.D. Vance’s infamous Munich Security Conference address, in which he accused EU Commissioners of suppressing free speech, the narrative still has an impact on Poland. The Polish President has embraced a free speech paradigm prevalent in the American political discourse – one that is ill-suited to the European legal and institutional framework.
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Narratives for Strategic Litigation
To make sense of the migration-related jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), scholars tend to identify a certain logic, story or direction in which the case law develops. My point here is not that a certain narrative is correct or another is wrong. Instead, I want to draw attention to the fact that, as Janna Wessels and Jürgen Bast have recently shown, there are three competing narratives, and that it is important to be aware of these – not only, but especially for actors engaged in strategic litigation.
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Free Speech, Protest and the High Court’s Ruling on the Proscription of Palestine Action
On 13 February, the High Court of England and Wales ruled that the UK government’s decision to proscribe Palestine Action did not follow the government’s own policy and was contrary to the rights to freedom of expression and assembly. The case highlights how proscription, a sweeping power “designed to ensure that an organisation ceases to exist”, significantly affects the rights of people outside the organisation. Given the breadth of the restriction, the court came to the right conclusion and provided an important safeguard for free speech and protest rights.
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International Law of Equals
The old, cherished post-war international legal order no longer exists. The stakes were clear even before the recent, blatantly illegal attack on Iran led by the United States and Israel. After attacking Venezuela in January, Donald Trump freely admitted that he was only interested in his own morality, not international law. Mark Carney and Emmanuel Macron articulated the antithesis to Trump in Davos. Both professed their commitment to a multilateral, rules-based order, placing predictability above high-handedness. Each vision has a history that can provide insight into the conditions for their success.
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On the Way to the Industrial Accelerator Act
After months of delays, internal frictions, leaks, and sensational claims that EU industrial policy is going “full China”, the long-anticipated proposal for an Industrial Accelerator Act (IAA) is expected in early March. The IAA represents a continuation and deepening of the Commission’s new industrial policy, distancing itself from a deeply entrenched constitutional imaginary in which the economy was governed primarily through rules designed to enable and protect competitive coordination.
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Is the International Norm Against Assassination Dead?
On 28 February 2026, the United States and Israel assassinated the supreme leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei. The joint operation marked the first time either state has directly killed a sitting head of state. As with the US’s January 2026 operation against Nicolás Maduro, what stands out is not only the gravity of the act but the manner in which it was justified. While the international norm against assassination may not yet be fully dead, its recent trajectory offers little hope for its restoration.
Continue reading >>The Pseudo-Technical Purge
In January 2026, Serbia adopted a package of amendments to core judicial statutes, informally labelled the “Mrdić laws”, that together recalibrate key elements of the country’s prosecutorial and judicial framework. At the centre of the reform lies the restructuring of the Public Prosecutor’s Office for Organised Crime. The “Mrdić laws” illustrate a contemporary mode of rule-of-law erosion in which formal guarantees of independence remain textually intact, even as the functional capacity of key institutions is deliberately weakened.
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Just One More Video…
On 6 February 2026, the European Commission disclosed its long-awaited preliminary findings regarding its investigation into whether TikTok, the social media platform used by 170 million people across the European Union, is in breach of the Digital Services Act. The announcement occurs at a time when political and public concerns about the potential harmful impact of social media platforms are at an all-time high, leading to calls to “ban” children and teenagers from those spaces in countries across the world. As “addictive” features are central to concerns leading to these contested calls, the potential of the Digital Services Act to change platform design is crucial.
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“Muskism Proposes Something More Like Social War”
Elon Musk’s influence extends far beyond business – and it continues to grow. But to understand how powerful and how potentially dangerous for democracy Musk’s empire truly is, one has to examine the worldview that made his rise possible. In their new book, the historian Quinn Slobodian and the writer Ben Tarnoff trace the ascent of the self-styled “Technoking” and the idea of fusing human beings with machines. We spoke with them about Musk’s relationship with the state, “cyborg conservatism,” and whether anything can still counter the fusion of political and digital power.
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„Muskismus setzt eher auf sozialen Krieg“
Elon Musks Macht reicht weit über die Wirtschaft hinaus. Und sie nimmt zu. Um zu verstehen, wie gefährlich Musks Imperium für die Demokratie tatsächlich ist, muss man das dahinterstehende Weltverständnis in den Blick nehmen. In ihrem neuen Buch zeichnen der Historiker Quinn Slobodian und der Autor Ben Tarnoff den Aufstieg des selbsternannten „Technoking“ nach und analysieren seine Idee einer Verschmelzung von Mensch und Maschine. Wir haben mit ihnen über Musks Verhältnis zum Staat gesprochen, über „Cyborg-Konservativismus“ – und über die Frage, ob sich der Symbiose von politischer und digitaler Macht noch etwas entgegensetzen lässt.
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The Securitarian Turn in Italian Criminal Law
In 2025 and 2026, Italy’s far-right government pushed through two far-reaching “Security Decrees” using emergency powers. The two Security Decrees differ in content and together amount to a wide-ranging reform of the Italian criminal justice system. Yet, despite their apparent heterogeneity, they share a number of features that point to a common securitarian and illiberal approach.
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The Castle Method
The EU leaders’ informal competitiveness retreat at Alden Biesen Castle on 12 February produced a joint statement with a familiar ambition: completing the Single Market. Less noticed, however, is that the statement also sketches a programme of institutional and procedural reform. It is an attempt to re-engineer, through an informal summit, the EU’s constitutional and institutional architecture, without the safeguards of formal Treaty revision.
Continue reading >>The Price of Constitutional Subversion
On February 19, the Seoul Central District Court sentenced former President Yoon Suk Yeol to life imprisonment for leading an insurrection. The events leading to his conviction began with his declaration of martial law on December 3, 2024, which banned all political activity. The Court’s reasoning shows that Yoon’s actions struck at the heart of democracy. At the same time, his supporters’ persistent refusal to accept the verdict highlights a deeper problem: the fragility of democratic legitimacy in a polarized society.
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Venezuela’s Amnesty Law
The U.S. intervention in Venezuela violated the ius cogens prohibition of the use of force and the principle of non-intervention of the UN Charter. At the same time, it created room for political change. The recently adopted Venezuelan Amnesty Law appears to go in that direction. However, a law should not be judged only by what it proclaims, but also — and above all — by its real effects. From this perspective, fundamental doubts arise as to whether the Amnesty Law will contribute to a true democratic renewal in Venezuela.
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The European Commission at the Board of Peace
Commissioner for the Mediterranean Dubravka Šuica attended the inaugural meeting of the Board of Peace (BoP) in Washington. Her presence triggered significant criticism from several Member States and European Parliament groups, considering that she did not have a mandate to take part in such a politically contested initiative. The European Commission, on the other hand, defended her participation on the ground that the EU has a direct interest in the reconstruction of Gaza. Given the questions surrounding the compatibility of the BoP Charter with the EU’s constitutional principles, the Commission’s unilateral action is difficult to defend.
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„Nur die Illusion von Schutz“
Australien hat als erstes Land im Dezember 2025 eine Altersgrenze für soziale Medien eingeführt. Diese Woche zeigte Bundeskanzler Friedrich Merz „viel Sympathie“ für die entsprechenden Vorschläge von SPD und CDU. Neben den detaillierten Regulierungsfragen, die hinter dem Verbot stehen – EU-Kompetenzen, App-Design, Durchsetzbarkeit – wirft die Debatte grundsätzliche verfassungsrechtliche Fragen auf: Wie verteilt das Grundgesetz Verantwortung zwischen Staat, Eltern und Kindern? Welche Rolle spielt Schutz – und wo beginnt Bevormundung?
Continue reading >>“Just the Illusion of Protection”
In December 2025, Australia became the first country to introduce a statutory age limit for social media. This week, German Chancellor Friedrich Merz indicated that he views similar proposals from the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) with “considerable sympathy.” Beyond the detailed regulatory questions underlying such a ban – EU competences, app design, enforceability – the debate raises fundamental constitutional issues: How does the German Basic Law allocate responsibility between the state, parents, and children? What is the role of protection, and where does paternalism begin?
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Searching for Answers
In October 2025, following OpenAI’s disclosure that ChatGPT’s search feature had reached an average of 120.4 million monthly users in the EU, a Commission spokesperson confirmed that regulators are currently assessing whether ChatGPT can be designated as a Very Large Online Search Engine. The legal question is whether a service that synthesises answers rather than returning indexed links falls under Digital Services Act as an “online search engine”. The Commission should answer yes. A functional interpretation is legally mandated, economically justified, and urgently necessary.
Continue reading >>Fox in the Henhouse
Burundi has assumed the rotating presidency of the African Union at a moment when violence in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo is escalating – and with thousands of its own troops deployed there. The Union’s institutional design neither anticipates nor restrains a chair drawn from a state directly involved in the conflict, embedding a structural tension at the heart of its peace mandate. The 2026 presidency will test whether continental leadership can rise above national security interests or whether the fox now guards the henhouse.
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Text Is Not Enough
Advocate General Ćapeta’s Opinion in Case C-225/24, of 12 February 2026, clarifies that, in contexts of systemic rule-of-law deterioration, compliance cannot be measured solely by legislative text, while also explaining the constraints of discretionary power in EU fund cases. Rule-of-law compliance must be assessed through effective implementation and attention to the broader constitutional environment. The Opinion articulates an evaluative logic for EU rule-of-law governance that is particularly significant in backsliding settings and foreshadows the standards required for constitutional reconstruction after illiberal rule.
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We Own It, So We Can Break It
Standing next to Volodymyr Zelensky days before the Nicolás Maduro extraction, Donald Trump asserted, “we’re protected by a thing called the Atlantic Ocean.” His statement sounded at once naïve and antiquarian in a globalized world of cyberattacks and US worldwide presence. But it is part of the hemispheric charge moving his National Security Strategy 2025 away from the China-centric anxieties. The NSS provides keys to other elements of the administration’s foreign policy, including relations with China, Russia, and Europe; recovery of dusty spheres-of-influence and balance-of-power talk; and the focus on “Western civilization”.
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Remedies as the Real Test in The Gambia v Myanmar
The merits hearings in Application of the Genocide Convention (The Gambia v Myanmar) concluded on 29 January 2026, and the Court has entered deliberations, with the judgment date to be announced later. Commentary on this case understandably gravitates to proof, genocidal intent, and whether the ICJ will repeat the caution of its earlier genocide judgments. Those issues matter, but they can obscure a harder question: what does the Court think a genocide judgment is for? The answer is not found in abstract debates about enforceability. It is embedded in remedies.
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Has the European Parliament Shot Itself in the Foot?
After 25 years of negotiations, on 6 December 2024, the EU and four Mercosur countries – Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay – reached an EU-Mercosur Agreement. The geoeconomic importance of this Agreement cannot be understated. Against this background, it came as a surprise when a narrow majority in the EP, backed by far-right and far-left parties alike, on 21 January 2026, requested an opinion on its compatibility with EU law. By contesting the legality of the Agreement, the EP risks losing a formal say over the temporal application of the “trade part” of broader mixed agreements pending ratification in the Member States.
Continue reading >>Soft Law in Hard Times
Seasoned court watchers were no doubt surprised by the English High Court’s decision to overturn the British Home Secretary’s decision to proscribe Palestine Action. For anybody even casually familiar with British courts’ approach to national security-related matters, the odds of success were not good. The judgment is certainly not a slam-dunk victory for Palestine Action and it is replete with extensive discussion condemning the actions of the group. And yet despite these admonishments, the judgment intimates at wider concerns as to the role of counter-terrorism legislation in liberal democracies
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High Thresholds and Wide Margins
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) issued an inadmissibility declaration in the climate case of Fliegenschnee and Others v. Austria. While an unsuccessful outcome was expected, the decision nevertheless clarifies three aspects of the Court’s climate jurisprudence. Taken together, the case shows that the Court neither demanded more than in previous cases nor reneged on its requirements as laid down in Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland.
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Nationalization Nonsense
Fueled by resentment, xenophobia, and, one can assume, a growing awareness of his party’s diminishing prospects in the upcoming midterms, President Trump recently suggested that his party “nationalize” elections. As every expert to have weighed in on the matter has noted, the claim is preposterous. Simply put, the President has no direct authority over elections. While there are legitimate fears about Trump’s willingness to interfere with this Fall’s elections, he has no power to assume the control he desires.
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Drawing Red Lines
Lately, there has been much talk of “red lines” in German politics. Take, for instance, the recent recommendations of the conservative think tank Republik21 on how to deal with the so-called “New Right”, according to which the “Brandmauer” policy of strict exclusion of the AfD should be replaced with differentiated red lines. CDU and CSU should in future determine their course on the basis of what is “constitutionally permissible” and what is “politically capable of commanding consent”. In other words: the question of what counts as a red line when forming majorities with the AfD, where it runs and what it separates from what, is, according to R21, something conservatives should answer by looking into the Basic Law – or into the mirror. Can that work?
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Rote Linien ziehen
Neuerdings ist viel von „roten Linien“ die Rede. So empfiehlt etwa die konservative Denkfabrik Republik21 der sogenannten bürgerlichen Politik, für den Umgang mit sogenannten neuen Rechten „rote Linien“ zu ziehen statt „Brandmauern“ zu bauen. Deren Verlauf sollten CDU und CSU künftig anhand des „verfassungsrechtlich Zulässigen“ sowie des „politisch Zustimmungsfähigen“ ermitteln. Mit anderen Worten: Die Frage, was beim Bilden von Mehrheiten mit der AfD als rote Linie gilt, wo sie verläuft und was sie wovon abgrenzt, sollen die Konservativen laut R21 durch einen Blick ins Grundgesetz bzw. in den Spiegel beantworten. Kann das funktionieren?
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Reflexive Law as Anti-Colonial Practice
The adoption of the discourse of decoloniality by the Hindu right in India, as well as by other ethnonationalist governments around the world, points to the problem that any decolonial project faces: Who is to define which normative alternatives we should appeal to when seeking to rid concepts and institutions of their colonial legacies? This brings us to the underlying question: What is the purpose of reflecting on colonial legacies in law?
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Disaster Law as Methodology
The pandemic’s disruption of offline commerce revealed how global value chains are bound up with learnt dependency, instant gratification, and an extractivist, always-on economic culture. Recent modern slavery and global value chains legislation signals political awareness, yet its legal impact remains largely symbolic, prioritising disclosure over change. The real crisis is not disruption but the normalisation of persistent exploitation inherent to global value chains. Lawyers must expose law’s role in rendering this ongoing violence as normal.
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Frontex Under Scrutiny
In the evolving landscape of EU border accountability, the Court of Justice of the European Union delivered its ruling in Hamoudi v Frontex (C-136/24 P) on 18 December 2025. This Grand Chamber decision not only reversed the General Court’s dismissal but also fundamentally recalibrated the evidentiary standards for establishing Frontex’s liability for fundamental rights violations. As FM v Frontex (T-511/24), a closely related case, awaits its judgment, Hamoudi’s legacy in establishing Frontex’s accountability and lowering the burden of proof for vulnerable migrants, promises to reshape its outcome.
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Towards an Endogenous African Constitutionalism
African constitutionalism stands at a pivotal moment in its evolution. After more than six decades of independence for most African countries, it has become imperative to examine the nature, foundations, legitimacy, and institutional architecture of the constitutional systems governing the countries making up the continent. Drawing on our different fields of research, we propose to explore pathways towards a truly endogenous constitutionalism, rooted in Africa’s socio-political, cultural, economic, and historical realities.
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Is the International Olympic Committee’s Decision to Disqualify Vladyslav Heraskevych Legal?
On 12 February 2026, Vladyslav Heraskevych had his Olympic accreditation withdrawn by the International Olympic Committee. If the Court of Arbitration for Sport takes seriously its responsibility to ensure that the IOC’s regulations and decisions imposed on Olympians are compatible with international and European human rights law, in line with the IOC’s express commitment in its Olympic Charter, it is difficult to see how it could not declare Heraskevych’s disqualification and loss of accreditation unlawful and reinstate at least the athlete’s accreditation.
Continue reading >>Liberal Constitutionalism in the Post-Colony
Liberal constitutionalism is much maligned today as, at best, a culturally contingent approach to governance, and, at worst, epistemically hubristic. Concepts like the rule of law and the separation of powers, far from expressing universal truths, are said to be inseparably tied to the European Enlightenment. Their continued presence in constitutions around the world is less an indication of their durability and more a reflection of their current status as conceptual driftwood deposited at the high-water mark of Western hegemony. But is this an accurate account of liberal constitutionalism and does it really square with our understanding of the way legal concepts are recycled between North and South?
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Zwei-Klassen-Freizügigkeit
Schon jetzt leben EU-Bürger*innen ohne Arbeitnehmerstatus in Deutschland sozial prekär: Sie haben weder bedingungslosen Zugang zu Sozialleistungen noch einen Anspruch auf Bürgergeld. In den letzten drei Monaten haben drei zentrale politische Akteure – Bundesrat, Sozialstaatskommission sowie Arbeits- und Sozialministerkonferenz – weitere Verschärfungen beschlossen, die für viele tausend EU-Zugewanderte Gesundheitsversorgung, Sozialleistungen und Kindergeld einschränken sollen. Dieses systematische Programm der Ausgrenzung und Abschottung führt unweigerlich zu massiven Diskriminierungen.
Continue reading >>Fixed Terms Are Not the Solution
The proposal to establish fixed terms for justices of the Brazilian Supreme Court has recently returned to public debate following statements by President Lula presenting tenure reform as an institutional response to the Court’s current difficulties. The idea resurfaces cyclically whenever the Court makes mistakes. Yet the length of justices’ tenure is neither the central empirical nor the normative factor explaining today’s deficits. The possible paths forward depend far more on internal institutional corrections than on constitutional reforms imposed from outside.
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Launch Event of the RefLex Centre for Advanced Studies
Join us for the launch of the RefLex Centre, exploring how globalisation reshapes law, justice, and core legal concepts across disciplines. The event will feature an introduction by RefLex Directors Philipp Dann and Florian Jeßberger, a keynote lecture by Dipesh Chakrabarty, and a panel discussion with Isabella Aboderin (University of Bristol), Natalia Ángel Cabo (Constitutional Court of Colombia), Sebastian Conrad (FU Berlin), John-Mark Iyi (University of the Western Cape), and Kalika Mehta (RefLex). The event will be broadcast live here.
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International Criminal Law of “the West”?
The critique of international criminal law as “Eurocentric” or “Western-dominated,” however historically, politically, and analytically valid and necessary, may have reached the limits of its explanatory power. The following passages reflect on the question of whether continuing to frame the problems of international criminal law primarily through a Eurocentrism/West-dominated lens obscures more than it reveals, and whether we should move towards extending our critical analytical frameworks in the interests of the global majority.
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A Prematurely Hailed Victory
Last year, the CJEU issued a seminal ruling concerning cross-border recognition of same-sex marriages, obliging Poland to acknowledge such unions in the civil register. Given Poland’s legal architecture, marriage transcription alone will not enhance protection of same-sex couples. No rights granted to heterosexual couples by virtue of marriage will be conferred on same-sex couples following the transcription. For this to happen, recognition of same-sex marriages in the civil register must go in tandem with the adoption of a statutory regulation of same-sex unions.
Continue reading >>International Law and the Imperial Ordering of the International
International law is an ordering language. It is predicated upon an imperial, western-centric, and hierarchical structure. It is a language of domination, of exclusion, of differentiated inclusion, but also of promise. The language of international law, which the Global South uses and appeals to, does not simply hold the promise of rectification; it also reproduces the problems it is supposed to help solve. This short reflection addresses such contradictions and how reflexivity in international law could help mitigate them.
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(Il)legalising the Destruction of the Amazon
The Amazon rainforest is vital for the ecology and agriculture of the South American continent as well as for the world’s climate. At the same time, deforestation in the Amazon is so severe that some scientists see the world’s largest rainforest as close to irreversible “tipping points”. This article will look at cattle supply chains from the Amazon to global markets and will show how law plays an ambiguous role with respect to the Amazon.
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Who Decides, Who Pays, Who is Sacrificed
The energy transition has become a central normative axis of global climate action. However, the acceleration of renewable energy, frequently presented as inherently positive, is not politically neutral. On the contrary, it unfolds asymmetrically across territories marked by deep historical power imbalances, particularly in the Global South. This article puts forward the proposition that a truly reflexive energy transition necessarily requires not only recognising harms and measuring impacts but also dismantling entrenched forms of control, authority, and epistemic hierarchy within the governance of the transition itself.
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Habeas Corpus and the Strategy of “Catch Us If You Can”
The Israeli Supreme Court has presented itself as a central guardian of democracy and the rule of law. Yet, the Court's rhetoric cannot obscure the grim reality of utter lawlessness reflected in hundreds of Supreme Court decisions over the past two years regarding Palestinians in Gaza. These rulings lack the grand rhetoric and the length of the Court’s “saving democracy and the rule of law” judgments.
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The Bonaire Climate Case
Once again, all eyes were on The Hague. After groundbreaking rulings in the Urgenda and Shell cases, the District Court in The Hague on 28 January delivered another important climate change decision in the case of Greenpeace Netherlands v. The Netherlands (Bonaire). The court, acknowledging the contested political context in which the ruling was made, sought to square the circle of state mitigation obligations by balancing potentially far-reaching considerations about the mitigation efforts required from states like the Netherlands with an innovative procedural and dialogue-oriented remedy.
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Method in the Madness
In this article, I will critique the project of a general theory of knowledge and scholarly inquiry using the figure of reflexivity. I understand critique here as a procedure that seeks to ceaselessly subdivide its object and thereby complicate it. This specific conception of critique is restless and – crucially – self-reflexive. It must carry on endlessly and thereby be brought to bear against every distinction it has itself drawn. Against a generalised theory of knowledge and scholarly inquiry, I will contrast an historically unsettled concept of epistemology.
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On Eurocentrism
Over roughly the past decade and a half, many disciplines in the humanities and social sciences have undergone what is often described as a “global turn.” This shift starts from a historical insight into the disciplines themselves. As they are institutionalized today across universities worldwide, the modern disciplines largely took shape in nineteenth-century Europe and continue to bear the imprint of that moment of origin. Two features are particularly consequential. First, their close entanglement with the nation-state has fostered a predominantly national framing of research questions, archives, and narratives. Second, they have been shaped by Eurocentric assumptions that were deeply embedded in an age marked by imperial expansion and European global hegemony.
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Voting for Illiberalism
On 8 February 2026, Portuguese voters will decide a presidential runoff between António José Seguro, backed by the Socialist Party, and André Ventura, leader of the far-right Chega. The argument I advance here, however, is analytical rather than electoral: that this election crystallizes a confrontation between two models of democracy – one liberal, rooted in the constitutional settlement that emerged from the 1974 revolution, and one illiberal, that treats constitutional constraints as obstacles to the expression of popular will rather than as safeguards of it.
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Wenn Richter:innen schweigen
Neutralität ist das Gebot der Stunde, ob es um Regenbogenflaggen in den Büros von Bundestagsabgeordneten oder um Richterinnen mit Kopftuch. Dass Menschen sich einen neutralen Staat und insbesondere neutrale Richter:innen wünschen, ist an sich völlig nachvollziehbar und berechtigt. Das Neutralitätsgebot soll Parteilichkeit und Voreingenommenheit ausschließen und damit die Gleichbehandlung aller sicherstellen. Allerdings waren im Jahr 2025 nur noch gut die Hälfte der Befragten in Deutschland davon überzeugt, dass Gerichte alle Menschen gleich behandeln. Was läuft da also schief? Warum kann das Neutralitätsgebot seinem eigenen Anspruch nicht gerecht werden?
Continue reading >>When Judges Fall Silent
Neutrality is the buzzword of our time. It dominates debates about rainbow flags in members’ offices of the Bundestag, Germany’s federal parliament, or judges who wear a headscarf. The desire for a neutral state – and neutral judges in particular – is entirely understandable and perfectly legitimate. The principle of neutrality is meant to prevent bias and partiality and thus ensure equal treatment for all. And yet, according to a recent survey, by 2025 only just over half of respondents in Germany still believed that courts treat everyone equally. So, what is going wrong?
Continue reading >>RefLex and the Possibility of Transformative “North-South” Research Collaborations
On 20 November 2024, Humboldt University of Berlin became a signatory to the Africa Charter for Transformative Research Collaborations. This piece introduces the key argument of the Africa Charter, posits its relevance as a benchmark for RefLex, a new Centre for Advanced Studies at HU, and proposes a set of queries to guide its operationalisation within the Institute and possibly beyond in similar “North-South” initiatives. I offer these reflections drawing on my close involvement in the development of the intellectual underpinnings of the Africa Charter.
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The Code Noir as an Archive of Resistance
What does it mean to examine political modernity from below, specifically from the position of the enslaved person – not as a metaphor or a footnote, but as a lens for analyzing foundational political and legal concepts? I argue that foregrounding the position of the enslaved provides a productive point of departure for understanding how colonial and racial epistemologies, imaginaries, and institutions have shaped core Western concepts, such as democracy and the rule of law.
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The Perpetual Interim
Bulgaria’s chief prosecutor has been exercising power without a valid mandate since 2023, even after the Supreme Court explicitly declared his authority expired. What looks like a technical impasse reveals a subtler form of constitutional erosion: power entrenching itself through interim arrangements, procedural improvisation, and cultivated legal uncertainty. The Bulgarian case shows how institutional capture can advance quietly, without open defiance, constitutional rupture, or triggering the EU’s usual rule-of-law alarms.
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Reflexive Globalisation, Law and Placemaking
Students demand the decolonization of curricula. Civil society debates the presentation of Non-Western artefacts and entangled histories in museums across the world. European governments apologize for slavery and genocidal killings, while former colonies request reparations, and the Indian legislature decolonizes the Indian Penal Code. The legacies of colonialism and empire are debated everywhere these days. We propose that these developments signal a new phase in the dynamics of globalisation.
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Immunising the Venice Commission Against Autocratic Contamination
The Venice Commission plays an important role in shaping standards of European constitutionalism. With greater influence, however, should come greater responsibility. As this post will outline, the Venice Commission suffers from one institutional flaw which concerns the method of selecting its members, a flaw which has been made worse by an unwillingness to enforce its own membership requirements and principles of conduct.
Continue reading >>Why US Sovereign Bases in Greenland Would Violate International Law
As the New York Times reported, President Trump and NATO have reached the framework of a deal that would grant the US sovereign bases over territories of Greenland. One of the officials present at the negotiations compared the proposed bases to the British Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus. Establishing such bases constitutes a violation of international law and cannot validly be agreed to by Denmark or NATO.
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Two-Step Test Master of None
Within the recurring use of the two-step test in EU criminal judicial cooperation (and possibly soon in its civil counterpart), AG Richard de la Tour’s Opinion, delivered on 22 January 2026, suggests a new role for the test: ensuring that the execution of a EAW safeguards the proportionality principle under Article 49(3) CFR. While this development strengthens exceptions to mutual trust, it also exposes the test’s limits in addressing proportionality breaches, revealing an uneven protection of fundamental rights.
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The End of an Era?
“I don't need international law.” This statement by US President Donald Trump is likely to go down in history. European countries should now remember their strengths. Even under the new global political circumstances, Europe remains a player whose economic weight cannot be ignored for the time being. More importantly, Europe stands for a normative alternative that holds global appeal in contrast to the imperial-feudalistic US vision of order.
Continue reading >>Time to Rethink Locus Standi
The General Court dismissed the action brought by the Association of Jurists for Respect for International Law. JURDI requested the Court to declare that the EU institutions had failed to act in response to the situation in Gaza. Admittedly, the Court’s decision to deny locus standi is consistent with the case law under Articles 263 and 265 TFEU. However, it is high time the Court moves towards a participatory model of legality review that would allow for actions to be brought by non-governmental organisations in the public interest of human rights compliance.
Continue reading >>Legislating Animal Rights
In late 2025, Satipo, a provincial municipality in Peru, recognized the legal rights of “stingless bees” to exist, maintain healthy populations, live in a healthy environment, and conserve and regenerate their habitat. What stands out is that the Peruvian ordinance gives shape to animal rights in a way that differs markedly from the traditional framing of animal rights as a social justice movement aimed at liberating all animals from human exploitation: it recognizes only one type of animal as a subject of rights. This illustrates that scholarship on animal rights may not be keeping pace with the reality of how animal rights are developing in practice.
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Rosa Luxemburg
Shaping left-wing politics and writing numerous political papers, her name is familiar to many: Rosa Luxemburg. After growing up in Poland, she pursued a broad and interdisciplinary education. Alongside other subjects, she attended law courses and earned a doctorate with a dissertation on Poland’s industrial development. Following her academic years, she began a political career in Germany – a career that would infamously come to a brutal end.
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New Constitution, Anyone?
On 8 February 2026, Thai voters will be asked to decide whether their country should get a new constitution – without seeing a single draft. The deceptively simple referendum question exposes a deeper struggle over who truly wields constitutional power in Thailand: the people or the institutions that claim to act in their name. Beneath the promise of participation lies a familiar pattern of “anti-popular constitutionalism,” where formal democracy conceals enduring control from above.
Continue reading >>European AI FOMO
The last 12 months have seen an extraordinary shift in the European Commission’s approach to digital regulation. In the policy shift, one of the major forces shaping the European Commission’s agenda may be described as AI FOMO (“fear of missing out”). The primary focus of this post is the proposed legislative reforms and their manifestation in deregulatory strategies. This post charts how such an agenda is driving Commission policy and highlights how AI FOMO is driving deregulation in EU digital law.
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The State Duty Not to Approve New Fossil Fuels
A growing number of cases worldwide are challenging State approval of new fossil fuel projects: from Ireland to Guyana, Greece to South Africa. UN Secretary General, António Guterres, describes such projects as “moral and economic madness”. But since 2021, over 2,300 new extraction projects and 119 new LNG Terminals have been approved for development worldwide. States’ approval of new fossil fuel projects is fundamentally incompatible with their international law duties.
Continue reading >>“Hypocrisy Implies a Moral Code”
The US raid capturing Nicolás Maduro on January 3, 2026, triumphed tactically, yet skipped serious international legal defense. Unlike prior administrations that bent law to justify force, Trump's team relies on regime crimes and success alone, sidelining global norms. Without even hypocritical legal nods, as Orwell noted even hypocrisy needs a code, international law's binding force crumbles.
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The Rule‑of‑Law Reports Embedded in Political Conditions
While the EU is navigating both external geopolitical instability and internal challenges to constitutional norms, these pressures have made the annual Rule of Law Reports more politically consequential than ever. Yet the persistence of the rule of law crisis reveals a deeper political reality: the effectiveness of the Reports depends less on their design than on the domestic political conditions in which they land. Where illiberal incumbents remain entrenched, they are easily deflected, reframed as external interference, or simply ignored.
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How Ukraine Should Join the European Union
The European Union is ill prepared for the new world of geopolitical competition. It faces grave external threats, some from unexpected quarters, and struggles to be united in its response. Eurosceptic and nationalist forces continue to obstruct the EU's internal reform. But there are external challenges, principally Ukraine, that will not disappear by the charm of inaction. If a sovereign Ukraine is to be salvaged, it must be admitted to EU membership, and quickly.
Continue reading >>Sins of the Fathers
Egypt’s most chaotic election produced not only allegations of fraud, but a subtle and consequential judicial shift: military service was recast as a condition of political eligibility. A discretionary administrative exclusion was turned into a permanent bar from office, with far-reaching effects for opposition candidates and democratic representation. Through technical legal reasoning rather than overt repression, courts reshape electoral competition and redistribute political power.
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Case C‑19/23 on the Minimum Wage Directive
The Decision on the validity of the “Minimum Wage Directive” from November 2025 was analysed from several aspects, but in the present commentary, I focus on the Court’s interpretation of the limit set by Article 153(5) TFEU to the Union’s legislative competence. The latter excludes the adoption of measures relating to […] “pay”. Arguably, the Court’s reasoning shrinks the contours of the exclusion of “pay”, thereby limiting the practical reach of Article 153(5) TFEU in a way that invites consideration of whether the retained national competences are taken seriously.
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Völkerrecht in der Krise – und als Krise
Das Völkerrecht wird vor allem in Katastrophen sichtbar. Krisen waren nie bloß ein äußerer Anlass, sondern stets eine Existenzbedingung des Völkerrechts. Gegenwärtig beobachten wir jedoch beunruhigt: Das Völkerrecht reagiert nicht mehr nur auf Krisen – es befindet sich selbst in der Krise. Doch die Krise des Völkerrechts begann nicht in Gaza, nicht in der Ukraine und nicht in Washington. Sie ist heute sichtbarer und schärfer, doch ihre Wurzeln reichen tiefer.
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International Law in, and as, Crisis
International law emerges most visibly in moments of catastrophe – war, mass violence, humanitarian breakdown – when it is called upon to restrain power, assign responsibility, and promise a horizon of order. Crisis has never been external to international law; it has been its condition of existence. Yet today, something more troubling is underway. International law is not only responding to crisis; it is itself in crisis. But its crisis did not begin in Gaza, Ukraine, or Washington. Its roots run far deeper. What is needed now is an international law from below.
Continue reading >>Between Scylla and Charybdis
Can a national constitution guaranteeing public higher education allow private foreign universities? The Greek Council of State said yes, opening the way for the coexistence between public and private educational institutions. Even though the Council inappropriately resorted to an EU-conforming interpretation against the Constitution's wording and refused to request a preliminary ruling from the EU Court of Justice, its judgment is a prime example of “multilevel constitutionalism”.
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Indigenous Self‑Determination and Greenland
Greenland’s predominantly Inuit population is recognized as an Indigenous People with a corresponding right to self‑determination under international law. Any external attempt to alter Greenland’s sovereignty – including annexation by the United States – would violate that right and therefore cannot be lawful without the freely expressed will of the Greenlandic people.
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Accession by Algorithm
For over twenty years, the EU has viewed Albania as a potential accession candidate. Albania has since applied, undergone reviews, and obtained candidate status, yet core reforms have lagged amid political polarization and persistent corruption. Against this backdrop, the government has, since 2023, turned to AI – using it to translate and consolidate legislation, screen procurement opportunities, and even assign a system to a cabinet-level role. While these initiatives promise efficiency, transparency, and participation, they risk treating symptoms rather than the deeper ethical and institutional reforms required for EU acquis alignment.
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Independence as Immunity
The Italian Data Protection Authority, a cornerstone in the enforcement of the General Data Protection Regulation, is currently at the centre of an unprecedented judicial crisis. Recent searches by the police have involved the entire Board – including the President – on grave allegations of embezzlement and corruption. The scandal exposes a structural vulnerability in the European governance model for data protection: the independence of DPAs risks degenerating into immunity if it is not balanced by a robust and proactive system of external accountability.
Continue reading >>Accommodation at Any Cost
The OECD opened 2026 with a new deal on the “way forward on [the] global minimum tax package”. The new ‘side-by-side arrangement’ legalises this exceptional position for US companies. The EU has implemented the initial global minimum tax through a Directive, and Member States have implemented the rules domestically. I believe that the amendments to that legislation through the side-by-side deal highlight democratic deficiencies by delegating the formulation of tax norms to international forums.
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Racialized, but Equal?
The Danish housing law is an instructive example of what has long been described as the racialisation of poverty. Racialised groups are disproportionately represented among those living in poverty in Europe, due to historical and structural inequalities, while poverty itself becomes associated with these groups and framed as an individual or cultural failing rather than systemic injustice. While extensively analysed in sociology and critical race theory, the racialisation of poverty remains strikingly undertheorised in law.
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Reforming the Italian “Magistracy”
On 30th October 2025, the Italian Parliament approved a constitutional amendment that will be put to a referendum in March 2026. A brainchild of the Meloni government, the reform redesigns the constitutional framework governing Italy’s judicial system. Among other changes, it separates previously unified career paths for prosecutors and judges, and introduces a mechanism of appointment by sortition for members of all these bodies. Read in its historical and political context, we argue, the reform problematically weakens the third branch of the Italian system of government.
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Double-Layered Horizontal Effect
In the Egenberger case, the CJEU again effectuated a directive’s content via the horizontal direct effect of EU fundamental rights. The FCC not only continues to show openness to the CJEU’s approach, but even finds that notwithstanding differences in legal construction, it can achieve equivalent substantive results via its own doctrine of indirect horizontal effect. This leads to a curious result that may be described as a “double-layered horizontal effect”: Effectuating a directive via both the horizontal direct effect of EU fundamental rights and the indirect horizontal effect of German fundamental rights.
Continue reading >>Ziobro’s Asylum in Hungary
In early January 2026, media reports indicated that Hungary had granted political asylum to Zbigniew Ziobro, Poland’s former Minister of Justice and Prosecutor General and a leading figure of the Law and Justice (PiS) government, who is currently facing criminal investigations in Poland. The granting of political asylum by one EU Member State to a citizen of another Member State is not merely unusual; it is structurally exceptional under EU law.
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“The Centre of Conflict Itself”
In late November, the German Ministry of Defense and the German Foreign Office jointly published the first-ever “Space Safety and Security Strategy”. Its most remarkable aspect is the straightforward recognition of Outer Space “increasingly [as] the centre of conflict itself”. In the absence of a comprehensive multilateral treaty, the specific application of international law’s principles to the military uses of Outer Space is currently under development. Given significant divisions among spacefaring states, this legal order will most likely crystallize through a non-linear, heterogeneous process of individual statements, actions, and reactions. Germany’s strategy chimes into this debate and sets the tone for a much-anticipated Federal Space Law.
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Politik unter der Flagge von Wissenschaft?
Neutralität ist kein Machtinstrument, sondern eine professionelle Haltung. Der Vorwurf, Objektivität diene heute vor allem der Disziplinierung kritischer Stimmen, greift zu kurz. Nicht politische Enthaltung, sondern die klare Trennung von wissenschaftlicher Analyse und politischer Stellungnahme schützt die Glaubwürdigkeit der Rechtswissenschaft – gerade in unruhigen Zeiten. Wer unter dem Banner der Wissenschaft politisch interveniert, riskiert, wissenschaftliche Autorität zu missbrauchen. Verantwortung zeigt sich in methodischer Disziplin und der bewussten Begrenzung der eigenen Rolle.
Continue reading >>Greenland and the Spectre of Dispossession
When it came to grabbing territory, the British had effective techniques by the 1960s. Morning-tea at Downing Street could accomplish what a U.S President’s incontinent media posts have been threatening to do with much froth and fury since 2019: The dispossession of the Chagossians was sealed during one morning in 1965, and should now serve as a cautionary tale for Greenland. Like the Chagos Archipelago, Greenland might find itself dismembered and carved up to serve the security interests of Europe. The path to dispossession is being built on the fallacy that the Arctic zone presents a security threat to the U.S and Europe. The true peril, however, comes from the interconnected vulnerabilities of climate destruction and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
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„Die NATO wäre tot“
Alles andere als eine US-Kontrolle über Grönland sei „inakzeptabel“. Mit diesen Worten hat Donald Trump diese Woche Sorgen vor einer US-Annexion Grönlands weiter geschürt. Während europäische Regierungen Dänemark ihre Unterstützung und Solidarität versichern, ist schon jetzt eines klar: Sollten die USA Grönland tatsächlich annektieren, wäre nichts mehr wie zuvor. Wir haben mit Marko Milanović darüber gesprochen, wie das Völkerrecht auf ein solches Szenario reagieren könnte – und was eine Annexion Grönlands für die Zukunft der NATO bedeuten würde.
Continue reading >>“NATO Would Be Dead”
“Anything less” than U.S. control of Greenland is “unacceptable.” With those words this week, President Donald Trump reignited fears that a U.S. annexation of Greenland could move from rhetoric to reality. As European governments move to reassure Denmark of their support and solidarity, one thing is already clear: if the Greenland annexation scenario were to materialize, nothing would be the same again. We spoke with Marko Milanović about how international law would respond to such a scenario – and what a Greenland annexation would mean for the future of NATO.
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Two Non-Constitutional Non-Democracies
Later this year, parliamentary elections will be held in Hungary and Israel, two autocratizing countries, whose incumbents are close allies of Donald Trump. The prospects for democratic and constitutional recovery in both Hungary and Israel depend not only on domestic political conditions but also on an increasingly permissive global environment in which systems of governance that fail to meet the requirements of either constitutionalism or democracy reinforce and normalize autocratization.
Continue reading >>No Elegy for Ultra Vires
Heiko Sauer recently diagnosed a “course correction in European constitutional law”. In light of the Second Senate’s Egenberger judgment, he paints a picture of a Federal Constitutional Court returning to calmer waters after the seismic aftershocks of the PSPP judgment. As tempting as this interpretation may be – driven by a desire for a harmonious cooperative relationship between courts –, it risks equating the mere absence of open conflict with structural pacification. I would like to both add to and modify Sauer’s thesis: institutionalisation, rather than the “deflation” of review, which just reduces its effectiveness, is the solution.
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“It’s Geoeconomics, Stupid”
“It’s the economy, stupid”, the famous catchphrase in the 1992 Clinton presidential campaign, emphasized the importance of economic growth and stability for US voters. The economic argument was also decisive for Trump’s second win. While he promised the return of a US golden age, the US economy has so far been riding on a rollercoaster. As world economies remain interconnected – even in a postliberal view – the Greenland crisis puts geoeconomics centre stage, with the United States using economic and coercive instruments to achieve strategic geopolitical goals.
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Remaking the United Nations
It has long been recognised that the institutional structure of the United Nations—most centrally, the veto power of the permanent members of the Security Council—is deeply problematic. What is now at stake is not whether the United Nations can be improved, but whether it can continue to function when its most powerful members openly exempt themselves from its core commitments. We have reached the point when the Charter’s principles require rethinking the UN’s institutional form.
Continue reading >>Grabbing Greenland
The US have doubled down on their threats to seize Greenland, oscillating between long-standing demands that Denmark sell the island to more recent allusions that force may be used if it doesn’t. Trump’s antics over Greenland have politically divided allies and left NATO and the EU de facto and de jure compromised. In this situation, willing, able and trusted states would be well advised to strengthen a European pillar which is complementary to NATO, i.e. one that can plug and play with the US in the Alliance where it can, and autonomously where it must.
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Keeping Up with Changing Times
The Venice Commission’s Rule of Law Checklist is one of the most influential soft-law instruments for assessing constitutional governance in Europe and beyond. In December 2025, this comprehensive framework has recently undergone a significant update. The revised text reframes the rule of law in light of new challenges. The result is a complex document that captures the defining features of today’s digital constitutionalism, where constitutional democracies and human rights are not only threatened by public authorities, but also by private actors governing spaces which are formally private but practically functioning as public squares.
Continue reading >>Simmenthal in Strasbourg
In Europa Way S.r.l. v. Italy, the ECtHR delivered its judgment on 27 November 2025. For the first time, the ECtHR required domestic courts of EU Member States to set aside national legislation that is incompatible with EU law, thereby aligning itself with the strand of case-law of the CJEU dating back to Simmenthal II (1978). While this alignment with EU law is to be welcomed in principle, the way in which the ECtHR assessed the legal consequences arising from the CJEU’s prior judgment is doctrinally questionable.
Continue reading >>European Solidarity and Union Citizens in Greenland
While the EU and its Member States have consistently signalled solidarity with Denmark and Greenland since Trump’s inauguration in early 2025, Europe’s strategy so far has been cautious and may no longer be sufficient. The current situation will test whether European solidarity can evolve beyond rhetoric into a form of “defence solidarity”, ultimately requiring Member States to share military burdens in defence of both Greenlandic Union citizens and European sovereignty.
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Taiwan’s Xiaohongshu Ban and Freedom of Expression
On December 4, 2025, Taiwan's Ministry of Interior imposed a one-year ban on Xiaohongshu (Rednote), a Chinese social media platform, which has become an important source of everyday information, particularly for younger users in Taiwan. The government’s decision to block access to the platform raises fundamental questions about platform governance in democracies: how should governments balance cybersecurity concerns with freedom of expression? These questions arise with particular intensity in Taiwan.
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Greenland and US Annexation Threats
Regardless of whether the US administration’s renewed threat to annex Greenland materializes, its multiple legal ramifications warrant serious analysis under public international law and within the EU legal order as mediated by Danish domestic law. President Trump has not only refused to rule out the use of military force to acquire Greenland but has also repeatedly doubled down on his annexation ambitions, transforming what might once have been dismissed as rhetorical provocation into a credible geopolitical scenario.
Continue reading >>When Caution is Justified
Little CJEU case law has been as fiercely criticised as that relating to the right to be free from religious discrimination. However, the CJEU recently found a sympathiser in Ronan McCrea. He argues that the approach is one of “justifiable caution”. Despite my disagreements with him, I believe that we must take McCrea’s position seriously to be able to develop a more fine-grained view of when caution is warranted. At the same time, I still firmly believe that the case law on religious clothing reveals deeply troubling attitudes toward Muslim women that have no place under anti-discrimination law.
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Religiously Sensitive Union Law in Fundamental-Rights Pluralism
“Doomsday” did not occur. The ghastly fascination with this legal conflict, shared by some observers in the media and in legal scholarship, has not been given new fuel. With its long-awaited order in the Egenberger case, the German Federal Constitutional Court has delivered a prudent and balanced decision. It has neither musealized ecclesiastical labour law and abandoned its established case law, nor initiated a trial of strength with the Court of Justice of the European Union by denying the primacy of Union law.
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Retreating from Internationalism
On January 7, President Trump issued a memorandum, “Withdrawing the United States from International Organizations, Conventions, and Treaties that Are Contrary to the Interests of the United States.” The memorandum lists 66 entities for withdrawal, many of which are connected to the United Nations. This is another dramatic signal from the Trump Administration. It shows scorn for the global commons and disdain for the United Nations. The symbolic impact is obvious and vicious. The practical impact is harder to measure.
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Repression Through Interpol
Belarus weaponizes Interpol Red Notices to hunt exiled activists across Europe, as seen in filmmaker Andrei Hnyot's year-long detention on fabricated tax charges. This creates a procedural paradox for the EU: mutual-trust systems like Schengen must filter politicized data to uphold ECHR Article 3 and Charter Article 19 non-refoulement duties. Can Europe's constitutional safeguards withstand this authoritarian assault on cooperative policing?
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The Rohingya Case Gets a Hearing
On 12 January 2026, the International Court of Justice will commence the oral proceedings in Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v Myanmar). Over the course of three weeks, the ICJ will hear arguments concerning The Gambia’s claim that Myanmar’s treatment of the Rohingya ethnic minority within its territory has breached Myanmar’s obligations under the 1948 Genocide Convention. The Gambia v Myanmar provides the ICJ with a key and timely opportunity to clarify the law of genocide, especially in situations of armed conflict or counter-insurgency.
Continue reading >>God Save Freedom of Expression
An art exhibition by Cypriot artist George Gavriel was cancelled last month following intense political and social reactions, culminating in death threats and a violent attack. The episode raises a fundamental question under Article 10 ECHR: can the suppression of artistic expression through political instrumentalization and institutional withdrawal amount to an interference with freedom of expression in the absence of a formal ban? Read against the Court’s jurisprudence, the Gavriel episode illustrates a broader structural failure rather than an isolated anomaly.
Continue reading >>Harmonizing Corporate Unsustainability
On December 16, 2025, the European Parliament approved the Omnibus I package, a deregulation initiative that amends key EU corporate sustainability instruments, including the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive and Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive. While Schönfelder and Streibelt argued that despite the amendments, “the CSDDD remains strong, especially its obligations on human rights and environmental due diligence”, I contend precisely the opposite.
Continue reading >>Kangaroo Courts and EU Law
In Commission v. Poland, the Court of Justice ruled that Poland’s Constitutional Tribunal no longer qualifies as an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. The ruling decisively addresses the status of the body currently masquerading as Poland’s Constitutional Tribunal, although one may question whether the Court did not commit a category error by taking the outputs of such a body seriously.
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The Monster Screaming the Loudest
In late October 2025, the majority of the Latvian Parliament voted to denounce the Istanbul Convention. This move faced considerable civic protests and was ultimately suspended due to a presidential veto. Nevertheless, what happened in Latvia was not a mere national power play. The withdrawal attempt was a manifestation of a broader challenge posed to Latvia and to Europe in general by disinformation, the growing backsliding threats to constitutional democracies, and by an ancient monster still lurking in the shadows of Europe.
Continue reading >>Europe Must Draw the Line
The long-term impact of U.S. intervention in Venezuela will not be decided in Caracas or Washington, but elsewhere. With intervention now framed as a standard policy instrument of the USA, it is the response of other states — including in Europe — that will determine whether the erosion of international law becomes normalised across regions.
Continue reading >>Defending Democracy Against Itself
Five years ago today, Trump’s supporters stormed the Capitol after his defeat in the 2020 election. Two years ago, in Trump v. Anderson, the U.S. Supreme Court kept Trump on the presidential ballot. What would the world look like if militant democracy had prevailed in the United States? Maybe not so different after all. Democracy is best defended not by banning its opponents, but by renewing popular support through participation, persuasion, and substantive reform.
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The Seizure of Maduro as a Repudiation of Legal Constraint
The Trump Administration’s armed attack on Venezuela and seizure of President Maduro does not even purport to serve the values of the international community. Its rhetoric dismisses communal interests and values with performative brazenness. It evokes a pre-Charter world of “spheres of influence,” where regional powers are licensed to pursue their own ends through imposition upon weaker neighbors.
Continue reading >>When Context Disappears
In Slagelse Almennyttige Boligselskab, the CJEU addressed whether Denmark’s "social mixing" policy in public housing amounts to ethnic discrimination under EU law. While much commentary has focused on ethnic origin and integration narratives, this contribution shifts attention to housing itself. The Court’s reasoning abstracts away the material realities of eviction and housing commodification, with the consequence that harm is fragmented and housing policies may more readily be framed as legitimate tools of “integration” and “social cohesion,” even where they disproportionately affect minority groups.
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This Is Not Simplification
The European Union’s digital rulebook is increasingly criticized for its complexity, prompting calls for simplification. However, recent proposals like the draft Digital Omnibus regulation are strong on limiting rights but weak on providing clarity. To achieve simplification, we must comprehend and address the root causes of complexity by clarifying rights and obligations, reducing regulatory overlaps, and prioritising long-term coherence over short-term fixes.
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When National Courts Say No
On 16 December 2025, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) delivered its judgment in Gondert v. Germany. At the centre of the dispute lies the duty to give reasons. In the triangular relationship between EU law, the ECHR, and national legal orders, the duty to state reasons plays a catalytic role: without adequate reasons, the much-cited “dialogue between courts” cannot operate as genuine dialogue. Gondert improves matters to some extent, but it cannot by itself remedy the deeper structural weaknesses that shape how that dialogue functions.
Continue reading >>Abigail Smith Adams
Born into the last decades of British colonial rule in North America, Abigail Adams (née Smith) lived to see the thirteen colonies rebel, revolt, declare independence and develop into a republic. Her legacy is the wealth of more than 1,000 letters that detail not just an intimate account of one woman’s life, but the story of a momentous change in world history, told from its innermost circle.
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The EU’s 1787 Moment
Recent actions by the United States vis-à-vis Europe, such as the adoption of the National Security Strategy, suggest that the European Union might need to make some quick, existential decisions in the coming years in order to better protect its interests. Europe can look to U.S. history for an example of how to proceed and generate what we might call “a 1787 moment.”
Continue reading >>Antisemitism on Trial
Antisemitic incidents in Germany have risen sharply since October 7, 2023, intensifying pressure on courts, public authorities, employers, and universities to determine where democratic contestation ends and unlawful discrimination begins. While many of these incidents never reach legal thresholds, courts are repeatedly called upon to decide whether contested speech, conduct, or affiliation constitutes legally relevant antisemitism. These decisions must be rendered in binary terms—lawful or unlawful, permissible or sanctionable—even when social meaning, political symbolism, and intent remain deeply contested.
Continue reading >>Tampering with the ECtHR
On Human Rights Day, the Secretary General of the Council of Europe convened an informal ministerial conference. The reason was that the ECtHR has come under pressure from its member states. Given the ongoing interference with the Court, I propose that the latter should define and apply contempt measures to sanction member states intruding on its independence and impartiality. States that publicly put political pressure on the Court, try to influence its judgments outside of proceedings, misrepresent its case law and role, or disrespect its authority, should face accountability under the ECHR.
Continue reading >>From Security to Economics
Last week, by adopting Regulation 2025/2600, the Council effectively froze Russian state assets permanently. They had already been frozen under the EU sanctions regime which required unanimous renewal every six months. In our view, this permanent freezing under Article 122(1) TFEU remains primarily designed to address matters of foreign policy and violates the conferral of competence. In the long term, given that the frozen assets also serve as a security for the newly agreed loan of EUR 90 billion for Ukraine, this will also jeopardize the enforceability of the said collateral.
Continue reading >>Judicial De-Simplification
In early December, the Court of Justice handed down a controversial ruling in Russmedia – indicating that online platforms can no longer confidently rely on EU intermediary liability law for protection against legal responsibility for user content in cases which involve data protection violations. Russmedia significantly weakens the intermediary liability protection – but the extent of the damage to the safe harbour remains unclear. The judgment can be read as having either a broad or narrow application, and the extent of the damage will depend upon how expansively the case is interpreted. And already, different actors are reading the judgment in very different ways.
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Macht und Entscheidung im Publikationswesen
Der freie Zugang zu Publikationsmöglichkeiten und zur Rezeption wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse – wie ihn das Modell des Diamond Open Access im Kern vorsieht – sollte Leitprinzip bei Förderentscheidungen sein. Bislang ist das aufgrund vielfältiger Interessenlagen nur eingeschränkt möglich. Die maßgeblichen Akteure verfügen aber schon jetzt über Entscheidungsräume, um Förderentscheidungen stärker an DOA-Prinzipien zu orientieren. Perspektivisch kann ein gemeinsames und zielgerichtetes Handeln einen echten Wandel im Publikationswesen bewirken.
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Open Access Done Right
Diamond Open Access is the latest big thing in academic publishing, promising salvation from a rigged system. But a flashy label alone will not save us if we are not willing to address deep-rooted and newly emerging problems of a system that has largely failed in terms of quality, power, and trust.
Continue reading >>Amal Clooney (née Alamuddin)
Amal Clooney is an international human rights lawyer known for representing victims of mass atrocities, journalists prosecuted for their reporting, survivors of genocide and sexual violence, political prisoners, and marginalised communities. Through strategic litigation before international, national, and regional courts, as well as through the Clooney Foundation for Justice and the Oxford Institute of Technology and Justice, her work is dedicated to expanding access to justice.
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Bolsonaro’s Quasi-Amnesty
After the Brazilian Supreme Court convicted Bolsonaro and other military figures for their role in the January 2023 coup attempt, many saw this as a positive example for the world. Justice Moraes, the rapporteur and central figure in Bolsonaro’s prosecution, hailed these developments as a “triple victory”: for the judiciary, which “did not yield to threats”; for national sovereignty; and for democracy. Last week, however, Congress approved the so-called Dosimetry Bill, which allows for a significant reduction in sentences for those convicted. In light of the Bill, such declarations of triumph warrant reconsideration.
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The CJEU Providing Ammo in the ECtHR Rainbow Fight
The issue in Cupriak-Trojan case arose when Poland refused to recognize a same-sex marriage legally concluded in another Member State. The ECtHR had already convicted Poland because same-sex partners cannot formalize their relationship under Polish law. Following these ECtHR convictions, the CJEU ruled that Poland must recognize same-sex marriages concluded in other Member States. This ammunition to enforce ECtHR’s convictions comes in two forms: mobilizing the national judges to recognize foreign same-sex marriages and gently pushing the Polish legislator towards passing the civil partnership bill into legislation.
Continue reading >>Trojan
On 25 November 2025, ECJ ruled in Trojan that EU Member States may not refuse to recognise a same-sex marriage lawfully concluded in another Member State. Such refusal violates the right to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States. Unlike earlier judgments, the Trojan ruling marks a significant step towards full recognition of legal status across the EU. Hence, the duty of recognition no longer only refers to the formation of a civil status itself, but now also appears to extend to its legal effects.
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Exclusive Does Not Mean Exhaustive
“[The author] shall […] provide the publisher with the exclusive right of reproduction and distribution (publishing right).” – This provision, set out in § 8 of the German Publishers’ Rights Act outlines the common practice for publishing an article in a journal, not only in Germany, but in many other countries too. What appears to mark the end of the author’s control over their article, is arguably just the beginning.
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Schöpfung in der Wissenschaft
Der Staat ist verpflichtet, die Wissenschaftsfreiheit zu schützen und die Idee einer freien Wissenschaft aktiv zu fördern. Ein effektives Urheberrecht ist dabei ein zentrales Instrument: Es sichert die konkreten Ergebnisse schöpferischer Arbeit vor unkontrollierter Nutzung, gewährleistet Anerkennung der Forschenden und eröffnet Möglichkeiten der wirtschaftlichen Verwertung. Dabei wirft die wissenschaftliche Praxis komplexe Fragen auf: Können Forschungsdaten überhaupt urheberrechtlichen Schutz genießen? Wem „gehört“ eine wissenschaftliche Publikation? Und wer entscheidet, ob und wie Forschungsergebnisse veröffentlicht werden?
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When Universities Govern
When UN Special Rapporteurs send an allegation letter to a university, international law is doing something unusual. On 14 October 2025, five mandate-holders addressed such a letter to Columbia University, raising concerns about protest policing, disciplinary sanctions, surveillance, and the treatment of non-citizen students and scholars in connection with Gaza-related expression and assembly. The letter does not resolve disputed facts. Its importance lies elsewhere: it reflects a shift in how international human rights law responds to the privatisation of coercive governance.
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Egenberger
The Egenberger decision is not only about church labour law, but touches on fundamental issues of national and European constitutional law. By integrating the requirements of EU law while maintaining domestic specificities, the decision provides a valuable example of how to manage different layers of fundamental rights. Nevertheless, the Egenberger decision carries an element of surprise. The FCC performed a Solange test, elaborating on the question of whether the relevant European standard falls short of the minimum standard required under German law and therefore justifies an exception to the primacy of EU law.
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The Fragility of Proportionality Review
The latest decision in Egenberger illustrates both the importance of the EU framework for protecting against discrimination on the grounds of religion, and at the same time its fragility. Since the CJEU decision, two German courts have taken turns at assessing the proportionality of the Church’s refusal to employ Ms Egenberger, with different results. The fact that two courts could consider the same facts and reach opposite conclusions without either seeming to have misapplied the law shows how flexible the law can be.
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Europe’s Climate Crisis Is a Rule-of-Law Crisis
After watering down the 2040 emission reduction target, running the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive and the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive over by the Omnibus, and now attempting to kill the combustion engine ban, European climate governance has entered the territory of lawlessness. European climate governance is no longer only about the climate. It has become a rule of law issue and should be treated as such.
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Winning by Losing
Up to now, religious communities in Germany could require religious affiliation for almost all kinds of employment. Following the CJEU’s intervention, the FCC in November 2025 changed this decades-long practice and thus accorded greater constitutional weight to equality and non-discrimination vis-à-vis religious self-determination. Yet it did more than that: it also reinforced the protection of religious freedom itself. Finally, the decision affirmed the supremacy of EU law in times of fundamental challenges to the transnational rule of law. Egenberger thus constitutes a substantial, well-justified, fundamental-rights-friendly, and welcome shift.
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Article 17 TFEU as a Gateway to National Sovereignty Creep
The jurisprudence of the CJEU on Article 17 TFEU and the EU’s duty to respect the status of churches and religions under national law has changed significantly over time. Early case law reflected a narrow interpretation of Article 17 TFEU, emphasizing strong protection of religious freedom. More recent decisions demonstrate a broader reading which goes hand in hand with a wide margin of appreciation. With the latter, the CJEU effectively adopts a low level of scrutiny, thereby stepping back and giving way to the vindications of national sovereignty.
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A General Obligation to Monitor
In Russmedia Digital, the ECJ ruled at the beginning of December that in cases dealing with data protection violations, such as defamatory content, the notice-and-takedown procedure should not be applied, but rather that the respective platform is (jointly) liable for illegal content from the publication of the content on. Clearly unaware of the enormous implications of its decision for the freedom of expression and information of millions of users in the EU, the Court is thus demanding the establishment of a comprehensive monitoring system for communication in the digital public sphere.
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Patchwork Policing
In November 2025, the federal states of Baden-Württemberg and North Rhine-Westphalia amended their state police laws to enable or expand the use of the US intelligence software Palantir – and thus triggered debate on AI use. Meanwhile, France and Luxembourg prioritise authorising AI-supported video analysis in public spaces. While the regulatory details may differ, the underlying dynamic is the same: legislatures are progressively expanding AI-assisted police powers without a coherent regulatory concept, exposing fundamental rights to uneven and unnecessary risks.
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The Battle over the Sacred and the Profane
Struggles around sexual and reproductive rights pit more liberally, progressive-oriented or “frontlash” actors against other, including non-liberal, often radical-conservative “backlash” organizations. In the actions of the latter, religion is an explicit and core dimension. This struggle is about a political and religious backlash to a largely secular, progressive cultural and human rights revolution. It confronts opposing sides of (transnational) civil society, who both make moral, “sacred” claims, while profaning the opponent.
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The CJEU Versus the Constitutional Tribunal in Poland
On 18 December 2025, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) handed down a momentous judgment, in which it found that the Constitutional Tribunal (CT) of Poland does not satisfy the requirements of an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. The Court also found that through the decisions of that Tribunal Poland had failed to fulfil its obligations under the Treaty of European Union, as well as under the general principles of autonomy, primacy, effectiveness and the uniform application of EU law.
Continue reading >>Beyond Religious Freedom
In contemporary Europe, the protection of religious minorities continues to rest predominantly on the constitutional architecture of religious freedom and non-discrimination. Yet this framework often proves insufficient to capture the specific vulnerabilities and identity-based claims of minority communities. Protecting minorities therefore demands recognising the specific forms of vulnerability produced by their social and constitutional position.
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Rechnungshof statt Redaktionsschluss
Journale wie aus dem Jahr 1665, Preise wie bei MrBeast-Meet&Greets, Datenschutz wie bei Facebook, Verlässlichkeit wie bei TikTok-Lifehacks: Warum es höchste Zeit war, dass die EU die Wissenschaft befreit. Wenn man sie denn lässt.
Continue reading >>Compulsion to Freedom
On 11 December 2025, the Austrian National Council adopted a headscarf ban for students under 14 in the name of protecting children’s freedom of development and fulfillment. A first attempt of banning headscarves in 2019 was overturned by the Constitutional Court. The legislator has to a large extent taken the requirements of the Constitutional Court into account. However, two crucial aspects have been overlooked: the resulting stigmatisation and the underlying patriarchal structures.
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State-Approved Information
As the infrastructures for creating, replicating, and disseminating information have increased significantly since the advent of the World Wide Web, the tools used by nationalist governments to control those infrastructures have expanded and evolved to keep pace with technological change. Nationalist governments seek control of knowledge infrastructures both to promote their supporters and beliefs and to erase positions and people who they fear. The United States (US) provides an especially stark example of how rapidly a nationalist government can gain political control of knowledge infrastructures to advance its preferred beliefs and silence opposing views.
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Lifting the Veil? Oops, They Did it Again
From September 2026 onwards, girls up to the age of 14 will be prohibited from wearing Islamic headscarves in Austrian public and private schools. The girls’ freedom of religion, as well as the principle of equality and neutrality, pose significant obstacles to the constitutionality of such a selective restriction. However, in view of many reports from teachers and sociologists stating that the autonomy and determination of many girls’ identities in schools are increasingly threatened by societal forces, the Constitutional Court might reassess its jurisprudence and adapt it accordingly.
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The Sanctioning of Law
Imagine a Western head of government sanctioning the attorney general and judges of the supreme court because they have brought criminal proceedings against his party colleagues. He has their assets seized, their bank accounts frozen, and their freedom of movement restricted. Unimaginable? Unfortunately, no. This is precisely what the Trump administration has now done with the leadership of the Office of the Prosecutor and six judges of the International Criminal Court.
Continue reading >>The Revolution Will Not Be Institutionalized
The academic publishing system is expensive and generates staggering profits for a few enterprises, while they outsource a considerable amount of the work to the scientific community. Despite ever-growing criticism, there appears to be no alternative to those commercial structures, but measured against the nearly 400-year history of modern scientific publishing, they are quite new and only emerged after the Second World War.
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The Revolution Will Not Be Institutionalized
Das wissenschaftliche Publikationssystem ist teuer und beschert einigen Unternehmen schwindelerregende Profite, während sie einen beträchtlichen Teil der Arbeit an die Wissenschaft auslagern. Trotz stetig wachsender Kritik erscheinen die kommerziellen Strukturen als alternativlos, aber gemessen an der fast 400-jährigen Geschichte des wissenschaftlichen Publizierens sind sie recht neu und haben sich erst nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg herausgebildet.
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Headscarves and the Wrong Balance
To date, the CJEU has decided 6 cases concerning women who wanted to wear a headscarf at work. All judgments suggest that considerations of neutrality can trump religious freedom. Although the CJEU made some general and abstract comments about the importance of freedom of religion, it did not really address what the bans, in practice, meant for the individual women involved, neither did engage with the possibility that these neutrality rules could constitute sex, race and/or intersectional discrimination. The CJEU thus provide little protection for the rights of headscarf wearing Muslim women.
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Playing with Fire
The Court of Justice’s narrow understanding of religious freedom under EU law is playing with fire. In the name of anti-discrimination and neutrality, it risks undermining religious freedom in ways that are particularly detrimental to Muslim minorities. At the same time, the Court proceeds as if European constitutional systems were roughly homogeneous, disregarding the profound diversity of church–state relations. This double-blind spot makes the CJEU’s approach not only normatively troubling, but structurally ill-suited to the realities it seeks to address.
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The Limits of Symbolic Regulation
On 5 December, the European Commission issued its first landmark decision under the Digital Services Act (DSA), targeting X’s blue checkmark as allegedly deceptive. The decision, which has attracted international attention, including from US politicians, argues that the design facilitates inauthentic behaviour. This article examines why the focus on the blue checkmark misses the platform’s deeper structural problems, does little to improve trust or safety, and raises broader questions about the EU’s approach to enforcing the DSA.
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Judging Independence
On Monday, the European Court of Human Rights held in Danileț v. Romania that judges in principle cannot be disciplined for publicly defending the constitutional order. Coinciding with the early December 2025 reports exposing corruption and sustained pressure on the Romanian judiciary, the Grand Chamber’s judgment could not have arrived at a more timely moment. Danileț is an important moment for Romania’s judiciary and a reminder that courts must be able to speak – and be heard – when democracy and the rule of law are under threat.
Continue reading >>Only Half Thrown Under the Bus
On Tuesday, the European Parliament approved the Omnibus I – a contested package that will lead to significant changes to the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive and, as a consequence, to the German Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtengesetz. We argue that the CSDDD remains strong, especially its obligations on human rights and environmental due diligence. However, the Omnibus missed an opportunity to clarify civil liability and, most critically, significantly restricted the personal scope of the CSDDD.
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Justifiable Caution
Religion in the workplace brings together two areas of law in which the CJEU has taken markedly different approaches. This has left the Court torn between following its assertive approach in relation to discrimination in the workplace and its deferential approach in relation to religion’s role in society. This sets wide but meaningful boundaries on Member State autonomy regarding religion’s place in their societies. While this caution has been heavily criticised, in the context of the rapid and unprecedented religious change in Europe, it is the most prudent and politically sustainable approach for the time being.
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In Good Faith
Debates over the role of religion in contemporary European constitutional orders have increasingly shifted from the national to the European level, placing EU law and the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice under sharper scrutiny. In our view, despite imperfections in the CJEU’s case law, the external and differentiated role of the Court and of EU law can challenge claims of self-referential sufficiency. EU law provides a mirror and necessitates a dialogue in which these convictions are tested and, where necessary, redefined.
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Populism Is Here to Stay
Following the presidential defeat of his preferred candidate in June 2025, Poland’s Prime Minister Donald Tusk, a former president of the European Council, recalibrated – or, more precisely, intensified – his strategy of imitating illiberal political forces, to the extent that his political rhetoric could easily be now mistaken for Orbán’s. What are the implications of this troubling development for what is, in fact, at least in the recent European context, a Polish speciality: the process of democratic restoration?
Continue reading >>A Divided Response to Migration
On 10 December, the Council of Europe (CoE) ministers met to discuss proposals that could potentially recalibrate the treatment of migration-related issues under the European Convention on Human Rights. This meeting deliberately shifted a debate that had been unfolding in political arenas for months onto the Council’s formal institutional stage. While the formal conclusions call, in diplomatic terms, for a political declaration to be prepared for adoption in May 2026, a separate joint statement of 27 States Parties reveals a harsher line, illustrating the CoE’s internal divisions.
Continue reading >>Is the European Court of Justice a Protector of the Weak?
Is the European Court of Justice biased toward business interests, or does it protect the weak? Drawing on a novel dataset of nearly 7,000 rulings from 1962 to 2016, this blog post revisits a longstanding debate with systematic evidence. Contrary to persistent critiques, this blog post shows that individuals invoking rights win more often than corporate litigants. Through strategies of “leveling” and “spotlighting,” the ECJ not only counters resource asymmetries in litigation but also publicly amplifies pro-individual rights outcomes.
Continue reading >>The Stakes of “Publicly Accessible”
One of the main goals of the EU’s Digital Services Act is to advance transparency about online platforms. Article 40 seeks to do so by providing researchers with access to data about Very Large Online Platforms and Search Engines. This was one of three grounds for its €120 million enforcement against X. This post will examine the legal scope of available data.
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“Danger becomes less scary when it is better understood”
Five Questions to Kim L. Scheppele
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„Gefahr wirkt weniger bedrohlich, wenn man sie versteht“
Fünf Fragen an Kim L. Scheppele
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Afterword
This post synthesises key insights from the AFAR symposium on fairness and AI in asylum, migration and border management. While EU policy frames fairness as a core requirement of trustworthy AI, contributors show how discrimination, opacity, privatisation and weak procedural safeguards undermine that promise. Examining risks from biased data to secrecy in high-risk systems, the post highlights structural obstacles to fair decision-making and calls for sustained oversight, participatory governance, and research grounded in the lived experiences of those most affected.
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The EU’s Chance to Curb Media Capture
On 31 October 2025, the Swiss media group Ringier sold its entire Hungarian media portfolio – including the tabloid Blikk – to Indamedia, an Orbán-government-aligned group that already controls 18 online publications and platforms. For the past fifteen years, the EU seemed largely powerless as the “predator of press freedom”, Viktor Orbán systematically undermined media freedom. Yet the newly adopted European Media Freedom Act could mark a turning point, potentially breaking new constitutional ground for the EU in safeguarding media freedom and pluralism.
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The Ghost of Dublin Still Among Us
On 11 November, the European Commission inaugurated the first Annual Migration Management Cycle, marking one of the first concrete steps toward implementing the New Pact on Migration and Asylum. The Pact promises a renewed balance between solidarity and responsibility, but the details matter. Whereas a final evaluation might be too early at this stage, the Commission’s recent Implementing Decision already raises some concerns. Several implementation choices risk reinforcing existing dynamics of distrust between the Member States that also negatively affect fundamental rights obligations and access to asylum.
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Seventy-Five Years of the European Convention on Human Rights
Seventy-five years ago, Europe made a bold promise: That the dignity of every individual would be safeguarded by law. And that an independent court would hold us to that promise. Today, as we close our discussions, we face two truths: First, the extraordinary resilience of that promise. And second, the magnitude of the challenges still before us.
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Happy 75th Anniversary to the ECHR
It is not very often that I get invitations to big birthday parties for human rights conventions, so it was an immense honour to deliver the concluding remarks at this event that examined the 75 years of the Convention from transnational and global perspectives in the presence of so many who breathe life to this Convention across Europe and the Presidents of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Court of Human and Peoples Rights. This birthday party has personal importance for me. I am, after all, alongside hundreds of thousands of others across the Council of Europe, a child of this Convention.
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Human Rights and Digital Border Governance
OHCHR’s forthcoming guidance on human rights-based digital border governance consolidates legal standards for data-intensive migration and border control. This contribution identifies where such guidance can help, and where a significant shift in current State practice is needed: clear legal basis and safeguards for intrusive practices, data sharing and interoperability, oversight of algorithmic systems, human rights impact assessment, and the use of security and emergency regimes that dilute rights protections. Each area is framed by the need to ensure legality, necessity and proportionality, non-discrimination, and effective remedy.
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Privatised Digital Borders
Digitisation and the growing reliance on private intermediaries are transforming visa systems from paper-based procedures into opaque digital-commercial infrastructures. Drawing on findings from the AFAR project, this contribution shows how automation, outsourcing, and fragmented accountability reshape rights protection in migration governance. Using visa applications as a case study, it argues that existing regulatory frameworks remain insufficient and calls for new methods of scrutiny — including participatory, co-designed approaches that centre migrants’ perspectives and reimagine transparency, oversight, and responsibility in digital border regimes.
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Automating International Human Rights Adjudication in Strasbourg and Beyond
The future lies in the adoption and refinement of semi-automated tools – AI and algorithms that issue recommendations that human decision-makers are free to accept, reject, or modify – supported by robust institutional oversight and explainability. Full automation of decisions, especially those pertaining to treaty violations, is never appropriate. As automation tools continue to evolve, we expect that more fundamental changes to the process of international human rights adjudication – including at the ECtHR –may ultimately be required.
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Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights Courts
The adoption of AI in Human Rights Courts' operations offers opportunities for improvement in terms of efficiency and access, but it also poses significant challenges. When implementing these tools, Human Rights Court must ensure that they do not compromise the very rights they are tasked to protect. At the same time, Human Rights Court will increasingly engage with cases involving AI, and they will need to develop greater awareness of the complex implications of technology for human rights.
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Walking a Tightrope
The EU’s proposed Reparations Loan – using immobilised Russian state assets to finance support for Ukraine – sits on precarious legal and political ground. While the Commission argues the scheme is temporary, reversible, and defensible under international and EU law, critics warn that it risks disguised confiscation, countermeasures, investment claims, and long-term damage to Europe’s financial stability. Belgium’s strong objections highlight the deep uncertainties surrounding a mechanism that touches vital national and Union interests ahead of a decisive European Council meeting.
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AI and Human Rights at the European Court of Human Rights
The development of a legal framework for the use of AI is still at an early stage. Moving forward, it is necessary to take into account both the inherent features of the technology and the rights that come under pressure by our use of it. The approach of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) will have to be on a case-by-case basis, building on the Convention’s transversal values, applying existing jurisprudence as a stepping stone and making wise use of the “living instrument doctrine”.
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Four Scenarios and a Proposal for the Future of the ECHR’s Dynamic Case Law on Asylum
Seventy-five years after its creation, the European Convention on Human Rights stands at a crossroads. A quarter century of dynamic Strasbourg judgments has significantly expanded rights in asylum and migration, but this very dynamism has produced a “lock-in” effect that limits political room for manoeuvre. This contribution outlines four scenarios for the future development of the case law and the possibilities for transformation.
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Migrants’ Rights Before the European Court of Human Rights
As we are celebrating the 75th anniversary of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), the topic of migration stands at the center of concerns about the Convention’s state of health. In this blogpost adapted from my remarks at a Conference in the Federal Ministry for Justice and Consumer Protection, I argue that those attacking the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) for an over-reaching jurisprudence regarding migrants’ rights misconstrue the actual case law.
Continue reading >>The European Approach to Human Rights-Based Climate Litigation in Global Context
Human rights-based climate protection does not stem from a single, coherent regime but from a plurality of intersecting normative orders. This contribution examines how divergent approaches to climate-related obligations unfold across regional systems, UN bodies, and the ICJ, with particular attention to the contours of the European approach.
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Anticipation Starts Now!
Concluding the Judicial Resilience Project
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When Permanent Turns Temporary
In late September 2025, a Swedish government commission of inquiry presented a proposal that would fundamentally alter the legal position of thousands of people with protection status: a new law revoking permanent residence permits previously granted on asylum-related grounds. The law, intended to enter into force on 1 January 2027, would require affected individuals to obtain Swedish citizenship, qualify for a temporary residence permit, or ultimately leave the country. Although the proposal is only at the beginning of the legislative chain, it has already stirred attention due to its retroactive nature and the potential impact on large groups of individuals.
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Hack the DSA
The EU DSA is one of the latest regulatory instruments adopted by the European Union to rein in the power of digital platforms and to create a “safe, predictable and trusted online environment”. We illustrate why the DSA’s promise of transparency is not living up to its expectations and then offer four practical recommendations for improving DSA reporting.
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Navigating Technologies in Asylum Procedures in Austria
Across Europe, asylum authorities increasingly deploy AI tools in the name of speed and efficiency—from automated translation to LLM-based text processing and chatbot-assisted country-of-origin research. Yet Austria’s experience, mapped by the AISYL project, shows how these technologies amplify a wider political trend: the erosion of the right to asylum. Far from neutral administrative aids, AI systems introduce errors, bias, and opacity into high-stakes procedures, risking further harm in an already restrictive asylum landscape.
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The ECHR’s Contribution to European Society
On the Convention’s 75th anniversary, this essay highlights its contribution to “European society” as stated in Article 2 TEU. It sketches how the Convention, as operationalized by the Strasbourg institutions, has shaped European society’s constitutional core, provided a general structure of rights, supported a culture of justification, and contributed to making European society democratic. Finally, it speculates on how the Convention’s significance might evolve so that it can be celebrated again at its 100th anniversary.
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Leading Through Dialogue
The ECtHR’s next decades will be shaped by its capacity to lead through dialogue rather than dominance. The goal is not a universal model, but a network of courts engaged in reciprocal learning. The 75th anniversary coincides with unprecedented global challenges – climate change, digital governance, mass displacement – that no regional system can tackle alone. Coordinated jurisprudential development, joint thematic reports, and open-access repositories of case law can enhance coherence without sacrificing diversity.
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The European Convention on Human Rights at 75
In the 75 years of its existence, the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) has proven remarkable resilience as a safeguard for democracy, human rights and the rule of law. With this symposium, we aim to continue thoughtful, constructive and sometimes also critical dialogue between academia and practice, intended to deepen understanding of the impact and influence of the European Convention system on other international and national human rights protection systems – and vice versa.
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A De Facto Union Veto
On 20 November 2025, the Indian Supreme Court issued an advisory opinion on the nature and extent of gubernatorial power over state legislation. Disagreeing with its own May 2025 ruling, the Court held that Governors act with broad discretion, face no judicially enforceable time limits, and are largely beyond review when sitting on state bills. This enables a de facto Union veto over state lawmaking and raises serious concerns for India’s federal structure and judicial discipline.
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Money Talks, Discrimination Walks
Driven by anti-immigration sentiment and supported by government policies, local governments in Poland are currently passing resolutions, targeting the relocation of migrants. The Polish managing authority and intermediate institutions of European funds responded quickly. Due to the risk of losing EU funds, some of these discriminatory resolutions were repealed shortly after enactment. These swift reactions indicate that some lessons have been learned from the previous involvement in the so-called LGBT-free zones. Hence, it seems that when money talks, discrimination walks.
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Democracy and Work
Can a society call itself democratic if its citizens spend much of their waking life subject to the dictatorial control of bosses? Today the question may provoke puzzlement: Why not, as long as the electoral system is in ship shape? But for much of the twentieth century, a critical mass of citizens on both sides of the Atlantic would have answered “no.”
Continue reading >>Rethinking the Notion of the File
As automated decision-making reshapes administrative procedures, long-standing guarantees like access to the file, the right to be heard, and effective judicial remedies risk losing their meaning. When AI systems collect, process and weigh information invisibly, individuals and courts cannot understand or contest how decisions are made. EU procedural law must rethink the very notion of “the file” to ensure traceability, human oversight, and genuine accountability.
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EU’s Digital Sovereignty and the Rights-Based Imperative
On 18 November 2025 in Berlin, during the Summit on European Digital Sovereignty, the EU Member States signed the Declaration for European Digital Sovereignty. The Berlin Declaration rightly highlights the need to mitigate digital dependencies and to advance the EU’s technological capabilities. Yet what remains strikingly absent is an explicit recognition of the fundamental rights and a stronger commitment to enforcement. Sovereignty is not only about building European chips, clouds, or AI models, it is also about ensuring that EU law can be effectively applied and enforced – including against powerful non-EU companies.
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The Ominous Omnibus
The European Commission’s Digital Omnibus proposal to impose additional limits on the right of access to personal data is not a technical clean-up of EU digital law, but a near verbatim reproduction of industry lobbying demands. The proposal restricts the very tool used by citizens, NGOs, journalists, workers, researchers, and civil society to uncover systemic unlawful practices. Instead of strengthening EU digital competitiveness, the proposal threatens to dismantle a tool of counter-power and a cornerstone of data protection.
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Biometric Technologies, Frontex and Fundamental Rights
Biometric data qualifies as particularly sensitive personal data under the GDPR, and its processing must meet strict legal requirements. Frontex’s exploration of novel biometric technologies, including DNA profiling and vein recognition, raises concerns in the absence of demonstrated necessity or proportionality. Such developments require prior Fundamental Rights and Data Protection Impact Assessments. Overall, the legal and technical prerequisites for expanding the use of these technologies, particularly in light of interoperability challenges and fundamental rights protections, are not yet sufficiently established.
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Taiwan’s Constitutional Grey Hole
Since late 2024, the Taiwan Constitutional Court has been unable to issue merits-based decisions. The Court is neither resolving separation-of-powers disputes between the executive and legislature nor providing fundamental rights protection for individuals. This institutional deadlock constitutes a constitutional “grey hole”, where only the form of the legal order exists, without any substantive protections. All proposed solutions carry limitations, and some may even exacerbate rather than alleviate the problem.
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Technology Multiplies Secrecy
It is now widely acknowledged that new technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), are becoming integral to migration and asylum governance. This contribution argues, using the AI Act as an illustration, that migration and asylum governance suffer from a culture of information deficit, which is exacerbated by the increasing use of modern technology. It therefore advocates for a shift towards a culture of transparency, which is necessary for ensuring both accountability and fairness.
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The Trojan Horse of Free Movement Law
On 25 November 2025, the EU Court of Justice confirmed in “Trojan” that Member States are obliged to recognise the marriage between two same-sex EU citizens lawfully concluded in another Member State in the exercise of their freedom of movement, even if their national legislation does not allow such marriage. While this outcome was largely foreseeable, the CJEU’s reliance on Article 21(1) of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights on the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is striking, introducing a new, potentially transformative approach to equality in EU law.
Continue reading >>Public Perceptions Of Biometric Checks And Their Legal Significance
As the EU prepares to launch the new Entry/Exit System, biometric technologies are set to shape how millions move across Europe’s borders. But what do citizens consider fair when states collect fingerprints, facial images, and automated risk scores? A five-country survey experiment shows that public views are fragmented: people do not consistently prefer automation over human border guards, nor do they judge different traveller groups uniformly. These findings challenge assumptions that “smart borders” automatically enhance objectivity, legitimacy, or trust.
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Valmaine Toki
From the quiet shores of Aotea to the echoing halls of the United Nations in Geneva, Professor Valmaine Toki has carried the voices of Indigenous peoples to the international stage. As a Māori legal scholar and tireless advocate, she draws on her own perspectives and lived experiences to fight for the 6.2 % of the world’s population who identify as Indigenous. Her work gives those voices both presence and power on the international stage.
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Undermining Asylum Protection Through Administrative Shortcuts
What happens to transparency and the rights of asylum seekers when a government takes an administrative shortcut? As Constantin Hruschka argued on this blog, Germany is dismantling access to asylum in everyday practice while leaving the law itself formally intact: Asylum remains a symbolic guarantee, yet administrative measures systematically block meaningful access. One illustration of this is the German government’s recent legislative proposal to designate “safe countries of origin” (SCO) via executive decree (Rechtsverordnung) rather than through Parliament.
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What “Real Risk” Means For AI-Assisted Refugee Status Determination
European asylum systems increasingly rely on AI tools—from identity checks to case summarisation—promising fairness and efficiency but also raising significant human rights and transparency issues. Because Refugee Status Determination depends heavily on credibility assessments amid limited evidence, AI risks replicating bias, introducing new proxy discrimination, and deepening epistemic uncertainty. This contribution asks how current AI models may generate foundational uncertainties in Refugee Status Determination and what, if anything, can be salvaged from AI going forward.
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Tanzania and the African Union’s Blind Spots on Democratic Backsliding
Tanzania’s 2025 elections, declared won by President Samia Suluhu with 97.66% of the vote, were condemned by observers as failing to meet basic democratic standards. Yet the African Union Commission initially issued a congratulatory statement, raising questions about the AU’s approach to unconstitutional changes of government. These events expose a deeper problem: The AU’s norms against unconstitutional changes of government l must encompass undemocratic elections orchestrated by incumbents.
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Digital Visas Risk Deepening Discriminatory Borders
The deep challenge of equality by design is that it is no mere technical matter. Underlying equality law commitments is a contextual assessment of the impact of distributive systems on disadvantaged groups. This goes beyond the standard approach to “debiasing” in computer science, as the impactful contribution of Sandra Wachter and her team has demonstrated. However, applying these insights to the discriminatory borders requires even greater efforts.
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Introduction to the Symposium on Algorithmic Fairness for Asylum Seekers and Refugees
How are digital and algorithmic systems reshaping asylum and refugee protection in Europe? Based at the Centre for Fundamental Rights at the Hertie School, the AFAR project brings together scholars across Europe to map the growing use of “newtech” in asylum and border governance—from automated decision-making to digital evidence and biometric tools. This symposium traces the project’s findings.
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When Legal Uncertainty Violates Reproductive Rights
In 2020, the Polish Constitutional Court prohibited abortion sought on the grounds of fetal defects. While the ruling was announced, it was not published for three months, creating legal uncertainty which could change at any time. Accordingly, on 13 November 2025, the ECtHR, in A.R. v. Poland, ruled that this instability violates Article 8 of the ECHR. Crucially, the case reveals a deeper dimension of legal uncertainty, as both pro-choice and anti-choice actors were actively involved, seeking to shape the law in opposite directions.
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How To Dismantle an Atomic Bomb Legacy
The Pacific is becoming the most important geostrategic hotspot in the world. European powers are struggling to keep up, and have recently deployed naval forces to contain China. Yet, given the Polynesia’s nuclear past, where France conducted decades of nuclear weapon testing and hundreds of thousands of EU citizens still await compensation for radioactive fallout, addressing this legacy and providing adequate redress to affected military and civilian population is mandatory for any French or European attempts to legitimise their presence in the Pacific.
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The Omnibus Comeback of the Neoliberal EU
On 13 November 2025, the EPP, home to Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, sided with the far right in the European Parliament to push through amendments slashing corporate sustainability regulation. At the centre of this political drama is the so-called Omnibus I Directive, which seeks to “simplify” green reporting rules for businesses under the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive and the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive. However, this simplification exercise has proceeded along shaky assumptions, a questionable technique and an indefensible constitutional basis. I argue that it marks a triumphant comeback for a resilient neoliberal EU.
Continue reading >>Grey’s Autonomy
Amid the weakening of constitutional safeguards in Slovakia, the recently amended Statute on Healthcare now allows a person authorised to perform clerical activities to enter an institutional health care facility without any restrictions. At face value, the Statute aims to ensure the patient’s right to spiritual care. Crucially, however, it omits any reference to a patient’s request and consent – a silence that sits at the centre of this post. Article 9 ECHR does not tolerate that kind of vagueness in such a vulnerable environment. Henceforth, the Statute must directly state that access is based on explicit patient consent.
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From Backwater to Battleground
The EU acquis, as it affects research libraries, is characterised by both overlaps and gaps, which exist alongside forces and habits endemic to these institutions. While libraries have always been the place where the rubber hits the road – where the commands and constraints of different laws and policies need to be translated into a single body of practice – this contact is far bumpier today than it was before. This blog explores these tensions, as well as the additional complexity introduced by the circumstances in which libraries operate.
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Shaping the EU’s 2040 Climate Target
The EU appears close to enshrining its 2040 climate target in the European Climate Law, an important milestone in the EU’s journey toward the Law’s overarching goal of climate neutrality by 2050. However, the 2040 target will be less ambitious than recommended and not living up to standards of international fairness. Furthermore, important review and implementing provisions of the amended Climate Law will be weakened, along with existing substantive climate legislation.
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Israel nach dem Waffenstillstand
Warum die Regierung den Rechtsstaat angreift
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Israel after the Ceasefire
Why the Government Is Escalating Its Attacks on the Rule of Law
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Protesting Outside The Homes Of Politicians
On 13 November 2025, Minister of State for the Home Department Lord Hanson introduced an amendment to the Crime and Policing Bill providing for the new “offence of making representations to public office-holders in their home”. Recent years have seen many protests outside the private homes of politicians in the UK. However, it is questionable whether the amendment is compatible with Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) on freedom of assembly.
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The European Democracy Shield and Its Whole-of-Society Approach
On 12 November, the European Commission published the long-awaited European Democracy Shield. While the EDS’s embrace of a bottom-up approach arguably marks a meaningful shift in how the Commission conceives democratic resilience, the initiative itself does little to translate this rhetoric into meaningful action. If Member State cooperation on tackling information manipulation and interference remains voluntary, civil society involvement largely consultative, and several flagship initiatives end up being merely symbolic, so will the EDS’s ambitious and inclusive language.
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If It Looks Like a Duck
The lawfulness of using copyrighted material to train generative AI models is one of copyright law’s hottest issues. The various lawsuits around the world seeking to answer this question are seen by many as fundamental for the future of both technology and cultural creations. The Munich Regional Court has now become the first court in the EU to issue an opinion on the lawfulness of AI models.
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A Familiar Dynamic Full of Unknowns
This past Sunday, Chile held general elections. Sunday’s results and forecasts suggest that José Antonio Kast of the far-right Republicanos will become Chile’s next president in the run-off on December 14. With the country currently experiencing a drive towards political extremes and instability, Kast’s presidency could unfold in two directions: it might either produce a Bukele-like regime focused on law and order that would potentially do away with democracy and the rule of law; or it could face the rapid growth of popular opposition to his austerity plans, possibly in the form of street protests.
Continue reading >>Out of Sight, Out of Mind
Last week, the LIBE of the European Parliament debated a Draft Report and a series of amendments to the Commission’s Proposal for a Return Regulation. The Proposal seeks to increase the EU’s return rate, which has not exceeded 20% in recent years. In 2024, out of 453,380 individuals ordered to leave the EU, only 110,385 returned to their countries of origin. The Proposal legalises the possibility of sending migrants to return hubs located in third countries outside of the EU. This entrenches their marginalisation, whilst eroding migrants’ human rights protections.
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The Omnibus Package of the EU Commission
The European Commission is planning a fundamental overhaul of European digital regulation, and it wants to move quickly. On 19 November, it intends to publish draft legislation for an omnibus package designed to simplify, reduce bureaucracy, and harmonise various legal acts. The draft was leaked last week, and it is a tough one for everyone who appreciates fundamental rights-oriented regulation. If the proposals obtain the necessary majorities in the legislative process, the cornerstones of data protection law would be fundamentally changed.
Continue reading >>The Case for a EU Digital Knowledge Act
The European educational, research and cultural heritage institutions face significant barriers to transition their practices into the digital environment. Despite playing a fundamental role in supporting the exercise of rights such as education, scientific freedom, and participation in cultural life, these institutions are peripheral to the EU’s digital legislative agenda. The proposal for a Digital Knowledge Act is a response to this regulatory blind spot.
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Lawful Access as a Gatekeeper for TDM in the EU
Text and Data Mining (TDM) has become indispensable across disciplines: from medicine, where mining scientific articles can reveal patterns for new drug discoveries, to the humanities, where algorithms explore centuries of literature at once. The EU legislator embedded mandatory TDM exceptions into its Copyright in the Digital Single Market Directive. Chief requirement is that TDM can only be carried out on works to which researchers have “lawful access”. The concept of lawfulness, however, is anything but clear under EU copyright law.
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Der Plan von der Abschaffung des Asyls
Vom Schutzrecht zur Fiktion
Continue reading >>News, Information, and Knowledge
The EU adopted the press publishers’ right to strengthen the bargaining position of press publishers towards online intermediaries. As an intellectual property right, it gives publishers control over information flows and, by its nature, interferes with freedom of expression. Researchers, however, have an interest in being able to share and reflect upon matters of public interest brought forward by the press in online fora. As such, this post considers the press publishers’ right’s potential to curtail European researchers’ activities.
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Synallagmatic Copyright
Copyright, which provides the exclusive rights that allow authors to control the use of their works, is based on a societal bargain that grants rights in exchange for purpose-bound access to the works protected. In the EU, this contract has become imbalanced. Copyright, in order to honor its social contract, must empower users and follow-on creators to enforce the limited rights they have by providing them with efficient enforcement tools.
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Thou Shalt Not E-lend
The CJEU in the VOB case has offered ample support for the need to include e-lending in the scope of the RLD. This interpretation not only recognises the public interest of society at large in accessing knowledge necessary for cultural, technological and economic development, but also supports authors who, thanks to the derogation of Art. 6 RLD, are entitled to specific remuneration. However, the Court missed the techno-regulatory turn in this story.
Continue reading >>Unlocking Potential
EU copyright law’s teaching exceptions do not deserve a perfect grade. The law unduly privileges classical teaching practices by traditional educational institutions over more informal ways of teaching, it grants too much power to publishers, and it allows for differences in transposition, which hinder cross-border teaching projects and negatively impact the common market. Each of these elements should change.
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Not All Mandates Are Equal
The European Parliament, following the recommendations of its Committee on Legal Affairs, voted against waiving the immunity of two of its Members elected in Hungary, Péter Magyar and Klára Dobrev on the requests of the Hungarian authorities in early October 2025. In determining the fate of representatives elected in a Member State that is no longer democratic, the European Parliament reached the right decision, based on the wrong premises. Undemocratically elected MEPs should enjoy immunity only if they belong to the undemocratic regime’s opposition and have no record of dismantling democratic institutions.
Continue reading >>Beyond Copyright
Open Access is seen as a terrific opportunity for researchers to spread knowledge at unprecedented speed and increase society’s wider participation in cultural life. In contrast, traditional publishing models, with their rigid market dynamics, are aimed at rewarding rightsholders but feature visible contractual asymmetries that put researchers’ freedoms at stake, an imbalance that Second Publication Rights aim to redress.
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The Omnibus Road to Constitutional Drift
The European Union is undergoing a fundamental transformation in the way it makes law. Responding to calls for simplification and competitiveness, echoed and amplified by demands of the US Administration, the Commission has embraced omnibus legislation – single acts that amend multiple legal instruments across disparate regulatory domains – as the principal mechanism for systematic deregulatory reform. Once limited to technical consolidation, the omnibus has become a vehicle for substantive policy change. This shift fundamentally alters the procedural architecture through which regulatory change occurs.
Continue reading >>Reconciling EU Copyright Protection With the Right to Research
Considering the rapid evolution of digital technology and changing research approaches, it is doubtful whether the current EU copyright acquis offers sufficient support for research that requires access to protected knowledge resources. To this day, EU copyright law misses a general research clause that would allow researchers to do their job in the current information society and contribute to the improvement of societal conditions – regardless of constantly changing technologies and access routes to knowledge resources.
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One Step Back and Two Steps Forward
In May, after years of litigation, the Higher Regional Court of Hamm rendered its final decision in Lliuya v. RWE AG – a landmark case in which a Peruvian farmer sought to hold the German energy giant RWE financially responsible for measures protecting his property from a potential glacier flood. Although the Court rejected the claim in the end, the judgment has been celebrated as a “success without victory” due to the potential precedent effect in terms of corporate liability. The true significance of the Lliuya v. RWE decision lies not in its dismissal of the plaintiff’s claim, but in the court’s reasoning on extraterritoriality, causality, and preventive protection.
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Doxing Judges
More than a decade after the Baka judgment, Hungary’s judges remain exposed. A massive data leak has revealed personal details of nearly 200,000 citizens — including judges — allegedly linked to an opposition app. Pro-government media swiftly published their names, questioning their impartiality and even calling for dismissals. Instead of protecting those targeted, judicial leaders hinted at disciplinary action.
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A “One-Way Ratchet”?
On Wednesday, November 5, 2025, the U.S. Supreme Court heard one of the most anticipated oral arguments in recent times. In Learning Resources v. Trump and Trump v. V.O.S. Selections, Inc., the Court is examining the legality of President Trump’s use of emergency powers to impose sweeping tariffs. The case lies at the intersection of two powerful, and potentially conflicting, trends in the Court’s recent jurisprudence: on the one hand, efforts to constrain delegations of power to the executive; on the other, a recurring embrace of expansive presidential authority. Each path carries significant risks for the broader balance of powers in the U.S. constitutional system.
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Access to Knowledge on the Move(ment)
In her State of the Union speech, Ursula von der Leyen outlined several key priorities, among which one unmistakably stood out as a core objective: strengthening the EU Single Market. And there it was again – resurfacing with growing political weight – the call for a “fifth Freedom”: the free movement of knowledge and innovation. This contribution examines the legal implications that a new Freedom of movement could have on the right to access knowledge in the fields of research and education.
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Rooting Access in the Union’s Constitutional Norms and Values
The EU is currently experiencing epochal shifts. Key to addressing these challenges is harnessing the innovation potential of the ‘old continent’ by rediscovering the intellectual roots of an open, free, and progressive society. With the advent of digitisation, copyright law has generated chilling effects on innovation and creativity. Removing them is essential for exploiting Europe’s potential for creativity and innovation.
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What is the ECHR For and What Not
In a statement to the British daily The Sunday Times on 26 October 2025, Poland’s Prime Minister Donald Tusk welcomed the radical idea that, if the 46 signatories cannot agree on changes to the European Convention on Human Rights, it would be “quite reasonable” to consider leaving it. We urge the Prime Minister to publicly renounce these considerations, as the Convention forms a constitutional element of Poland’s commitment to external human rights oversight and to protection of shared human rights within a united and peaceful Europe.
Continue reading >>Shaping the EU Digital Knowledge Agenda
The digital revolution has multiplied the potential for research and learning, which are preconditions for innovation and development. Nonetheless, the legal framework in the EU governing access and use of knowledge dates back to the analogue age. For this purpose, research and education must be prioritised, and the well-known regulatory hurdles urgently need ambitious reform.
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„Wir dürfen niemals die Hoffnung auf die Zukunft verlieren“
Fünf Fragen an Michael O’Flaherty
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We Must Never Cease to Hope in the Possibility of a Future
Five Questions to Michael O'Flaherty
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Mass Graves, Denial and Impunity
Mexico’s unfolding mass grave crisis has brought unprecedented UN scrutiny: for the first time, the Committee on Enforced Disappearances has triggered emergency measures, framing Mexico as a litmus test for global human rights accountability. The government’s denial and refusal to accept international findings now pit diplomatic rhetoric against the urgent realities of systemic disappearances, challenging whether real reform is possible. As Mexico stands at this crossroads, the world watches to see if international oversight can compel action or if entrenched impunity will prevail.
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Winning by Losing
The FCC has handed down its long-awaited decision in the Egenberger case. The decision seems to be a confirmation of the strong protection of religious communities’ corporate religious freedom and right to self-determination. At the same time, however, the FCC incorporated the standards set out in EU anti-discrimination law and CJEU’ jurisprudence. The decision is thus turning the page on a decades-long legal debate. It meaningfully protects the right to religious self-determination, and at the same time it is sensitive to the freedom of religion of individuals and the prohibition of discrimination.
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Visualisation of the Advisory Opinion on Climate by the International Court of Justice
While many commentators continue to add valuable words, this blogpost communicates through pictures. A collaboration between a lawyer and two designers, our data story considers the Court’s reasoning and links its consequences to interrelated information.
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Cooperation Without Justice?
The ICJ’s advisory opinion insists heavily on the duty to cooperate to protect the climate system. I show that this duty of cooperation is grounded in an acknowledgment of differentiated obligations among states but falls short in specifying how those differentiated obligations should be quantified, whether in relation to mitigation or to adaptation finance. I argue this reflects a general reluctance to engage with the distributive issues central to climate justice claims which, in turn, serves to preserve the ICJ legitimacy.
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Sentient Companions Classified As Baggage
In Iberia (C-218/24), the Court of Justice held on 16 October 2025 that a passenger’s companion animal lost during international air carriage falls within “baggage” under Article 17(2) of the 1999 Montreal Convention. Accordingly, the liability cap under Article 22(2) applies. The ruling sidesteps both the ordinary-meaning consequence that “baggage” denotes objects and the EU legal context recognising animals as sentient beings. Finally, turning dogs into luggage neglects the social reality where the loss of companion animals foreseeably causes moral harm to their human guardians.
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UNTBs Between Authority and Discretion
On 16 October, the Committee on the Rights of the Child published a Report holding France accountable for violations of the rights of unaccompanied migrant children. Moreover, France’s written observations to the Report testify to its persistent deafness. This tension exemplifies the role of the pronouncements of UN Treaty Bodies, which – although non-binding – are designed to guide states in interpreting their treaty obligations. Yet, while some national courts engage in an open dialogue, others turn a deaf ear.
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In memoriam Catarina de Albuquerque
With the sudden passing of Catarina de Albuquerque on 7 October 2025, the human rights community has lost a champion whose contribution to the promotion of socio-economic rights in the last twenty years can hardly be overstated. Many of us have also lost a dear colleague and mentor. The wave of public condolences and expressions of empathy following her sudden death has been remarkable. Catarina has been described to me as the “mother” of the human rights to water and sanitation – and this is how she will be remembered.
Continue reading >>Looking for an African Perspective on the ICJ’s Climate Advisory Opinion
Despite the fact that Africa, as a continent, has contributed the least to climate change and is already suffering some of the worst of its impacts, with almost no financial support or relief from historical polluters, African concerns, arguments, and solutions got little attention in the ICJ advisory opinion. While Tadi and Sebutinde called on African idioms to articulate their response to the opinion, they fell short of articulating an African perspective on the obligations of States in relation to climate change.
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Wer auf uns zählt, der für uns zahlt
Die hoch interessante Frage der Finanzierung des Verfassungsblogs
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Counting on You to Count on Us
The highly interesting question of how Verfassungsblog is financed
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Italy’s Constitutional Gamble
On October 10, 2025, Italy enacted Law No. 132/2025 on artificial intelligence, becoming the first EU Member State to adopt comprehensive national legislation complementing the AI Act. This move raises a serious constitutional questions: can Member States successfully navigate the tension between European harmonization and national constitutional identity in AI governance? Or does Italy’s pioneering approach risk triggering precisely the kind of regulatory fragmentation that the AI Act was designed to prevent?
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Resisting Fascisation
Peru is in a deep constitutional crisis after Congress removed President Boluarte and made José Jerí, who faces serious criminal charges, the interim leader. Large protests demand a clean break from the current political class amid violent police responses and a declared state of emergency. The country is caught in a struggle against growing authoritarianism and weakening rule of law, threatening its democracy.
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The 28th Regime
Following the closure of the European Commission’s public consultation on the so-called “28th Regime” on 30 September 2025, the Commission plans to unveil its legislative proposal in early 2026. Instead of yet another European company form that looks good on paper but fails in practice, the EU should think differently: not a rulebook, but a sandbox. A controlled legal space where willing Member States and EU institutions trial simplified rules with common key performance indicators (KPIs).
Continue reading >>The Harms of Speech
The United States Supreme Court seems poised to strike down state restrictions that prohibit medical professionals from engaging in so-called “conversion therapy,” or efforts to make a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) person heterosexual or cisgender. Although the Supreme Court has declined to hear similar challenges in the past, the arc of its First Amendment jurisprudence and its skepticism of constitutional claims involving sexual and reproductive rights suggest that the restriction at issue is likely to be invalidated.
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A Judicial Compromise
On 3 October 2025, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands handed down its judgment concerning the export of parts for the F-35 jet fighter to Israel. We highlight two notable elements. First, the Court did not follow the teleological interpretation typically taken by the ECJ. Another approach to interpretation of international and EU law could have led to a (partly) different outcome of the case. Second, we agree that, given the State’s discretionary power, civil courts must exercise restraint when dealing with foreign policy and national or international security.
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Using the DSA to Study Platforms
The EU’s Digital Services Act (DSA) established a host of new transparency mandates for online platforms. One of the simplest yet most critical allows researchers to collect or “scrape” data that is publicly available on platforms’ websites or apps. This post examines who can take advantage of the DSA’s protections.
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Democratic Education in a Tempest
The Australian social media ban exemplifies a troubling global trend: governments across democracies are asserting greater control over what students may read, study, or debate – whether through curriculum directives, book bans, or online restrictions. While such measures may be motivated by legitimate concerns for child welfare, they risk undermining democratic education by narrowing civic pluralism and shielding students from contested ideas.
Continue reading >>Ethnically Stratified Citizenship
The upcoming ECJ judgment in Slagelse Almennyttige Boligselskab – the so-called Danish Ghetto Area case – could reshape the boundaries of EU equality law. At issue is whether Denmark’s policy targeting neighborhoods with more than 50% “non-western immigrants and their descendants” amounts to discrimination based on race or ethnic origin. While Advocate General Ćapeta framed the case around ethnic discrimination, the deeper question is one of EU citizenship: can EU law accept stratification of EU citizenship along ethnic lines?
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Das Völkerrecht im Angesicht des Absurden
Camus’ Sisyphos als Wegweiser durch die Weltunordnung
Continue reading >>Rethinking Highest Possible Ambition
States classify a large portion of agricultural emissions as “hard to abate”, framing them as residual emissions which must be compensated through removals. As other sectors decarbonise more rapidly, persistent agricultural emissions pose a significant obstacle to achieving the Paris Agreement’s 1.5°C target, underscoring the growing importance of reducing emissions in this sector to restoring a pathway consistent with returning to 1.5°C as quickly as possible.
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The Pathologies of the Reformist Zeal
On 14 October 2025, the Venice Commission issued an Opinion No. 1247/2025 concerning the anticipated changes to Ukrainian judiciary legislation. The Opinion criticizes the proposed judiciary reform for being disproportionate or even erratic experimentation. Indeed, Ukraine’s judiciary reformers never rest – but perhaps that’s the problem. This blog post argues that a more measured, constructive path forward to proceed with the judiciary reform is now essential.
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Rainbow Europe or Rainbow Washing?
A growing number of EU Member States have proposed or introduced legislation that directly targets LGBTIQA+ individuals. What a decade ago seemed to be Hungary’s isolated case is today a growing trend across the Union. Against this backdrop, the European Commission just published its new LGBTIQ+ Equality Strategy (2026-2030). In my view, however, this initiative represents a downgraded commitment of the European Commission towards the protection of Queer individuals.
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The Slow Death of Human Rights
Following several egregious crimes against women and children, Kyrgyzstan’s President Sadyr Japarov publicly suggested that the death penalty might be restored. Politically, this statement can be considered a populist response to capitalise on the public outrage over gender-based violence. But beneath this political rhetoric lies a multi-faceted legal question: Kyrgyzstan abolished the death penalty almost twenty years ago, binding itself under international law to permanent abolition. In light of this, the Kyrgyz Republic can neither legally nor reputationally afford to reverse this course.
Continue reading >>The Case for a Global Ban on Industrial Animal Agriculture by 2050
We propose a global ban on industrial animal agriculture by 2050 because this food system causes massive, unnecessary, and transboundary harm to humans, animals, and the environment. Addressing these harms requires international coordination, inspired by successful efforts to regulate or ban other harmful products or processes, ranging from mercury and tobacco to child labor and torture of enemy combatants. This contribution summarizes the key legal rationale, precedents, and instruments for our proposed ban.
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Towards the True Price of Meat
Despite mounting scientific and ethical consensus about the multiple harms of meat production for animals, humans and the environment, current regulatory frameworks largely fail to internalise these costs. On the one hand, animal agriculture is resource-intensive, contributing significantly to climate change, deforestation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss. On the other, it entails systemic ethical issues with regard to the breeding, keeping and killing of animals. This contribution explores the legal feasibility of a cap-and-trade system for meat designed to address the multifaceted harms of animal agriculture and to push meat products closer to their true price.
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Avoiding Too Little Too Late
It may seem counterintuitive, in the political chaos and noise of 2025, and in the face of widespread disengagement with international law and the different components of the post-war rules-based order, to turn to the nitty gritty of case management, interim measures and procedures. However, the best defense which international courts can mount at present is to do well that for which they were established.
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No Skyfall
On 26 September 2025, the Slovak parliament adopted the 23rd amendment to the Constitution, introducing an explicit “national identity” clause and a series of provisions presented as measures to “protect the family”. The Venice Commission issued an Opinion two days earlier highlighting both procedural irregularities and substantive concerns. Yet, despite the alarm it has caused, the amendment’s immediate impact is likely to be limited: most of its provisions remain largely symbolic without accompanying legislation or supportive judicial interpretation. Instead, the real battleground will unfold in legal disputes over the amendment’s meaning and reach – with the Constitutional Court expected to play a decisive role.
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Meat Consumption Corridors as Transformative Meat Governance
Meat consumption corridors are a tool for transforming the current meat system. In a fair and just manner, they are intended – both conceptually and in practice – to help bring high meat consumption down to levels that can be considered ecologically sustainable and socially acceptable. Accordingly, this tool also supports scaling down and moving away from industrial animal agriculture.
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Umbau in den Staaten
Seit dem Amtsantritt der neuen US-Regierung unter dem 47. US-Präsidenten Donald Trump erfährt die Wissenschaftsfreiheit und das Recht der Forschungsförderung in Nordamerika viel Aufmerksamkeit in Deutschland. Mit Erstaunen, teils mit Entsetzen, verfolgen die einschlägigen Wissenschaftsorganisationen, wie die Bundesregierung Forschungsgrants eingefroren hat und weitreichende Änderungen in Hochschulorganisation und Lehre fordert. Was in den Diskussionen um die einzelnen Maßnahmen des Bundes gegenüber Universitäten aber leicht aus dem Blick gerät, ist, was sich in den USA auf der Ebene der Bundesstaaten abspielt.
Continue reading >>„Ein Verstoß gegen das Selbstbestimmungsrecht der Völker“
Fünf Fragen an Jochen von Bernstorff
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“A Violation of the Right of Peoples to Self-Determination”
Five Questions to Jochen von Bernstorff
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Pick and Choose at the ICJ
The International Court of Justice has recently begun to deviate from its own standards. Three cases illustrate the emergence of a new approach to assessing “circumstances” required for the indication of provisional measures under Article 41 of the ICJ Statute. Traditionally, the Court has applied a structured five-prong chronological test, established in Belgium v. Senegal. In contrast, it now seems to adopt a more selective, “pick-and-choose” approach to that test. While giving the Court a certain degree of flexibility in assessing the circumstances, this approach creates risks of arbitrariness and unpredictability.
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Free Assembly for a Free People
In the age of the internet, people coming together in physical space still matters a great deal. This is especially true in countries where democracy is under threat. As has become increasingly clear during the past twenty years of the “global democratic recession,” existing institutions, not least courts, often fail to stop aspiring autocrats, while citizens on streets and squares might push back effectively – at least sometimes. Yet virtually everywhere the right to assemble has become more restricted. Even in non-autocratic contexts, states are ready to crack down on particular people. It is urgent to reverse this trend.
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The Sahel’s ICC Exit
Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger trumpet their withdrawal from the International Criminal Court as an act of sovereign defiance and decolonization, but the spectacle barely conceals its true aim: impunity. All three juntas seized power by force and stand accused of atrocities committed by their militaries and Russian-backed auxiliaries. By rejecting The Hague, they aren’t reclaiming justice for Africa; they’re dismantling the last external check on their power, turning “sovereignty” into a shield against accountability and leaving victims in the Sahel with nowhere to turn.
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EU law blogs, platforms and online journals
A conversation with the editors of European Papers (Ramses Wessel), [...]
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Academic Freedom as a Human Right
New attempts by the U.S. administration to tie federal funding to an ideologically driven “Compact for Academic Excellence” have sent shockwaves through universities, raising alarms about political steering of curricula and governance. These developments are not isolated: they echo tactics increasingly used worldwide, including within the EU, where subtle regulatory and financial pressures are reshaping the academic landscape. To counter this erosion, the EU must treat academic freedom not as a sectoral issue, but as a fundamental right under Article 13 CFR.
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Speaking Out on Campus
Campus protests have been testing European universities. The demonstrations at Freie Universität Berlin highlighted the tension between seeing universities as open spaces for free speech and regarding them primarily as institutions dedicated to academic discourse. German courts have leaned toward the latter approach, whereas EU law provides a broader scope for academic freedom while still tying it to academic contexts. Although the upcoming European Research Area Act does not appear to address this issue, guidance from EU law could help universities strike a better balance between protecting the right to protest and safeguarding academic freedom.
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Chatbots, Teens, and the Lure of AI Sirens
On 26 August 2025, the parents of 16-year-old Adam Raine filed a lawsuit against OpenAI and its CEO, following their son’s suicide, allegedly influenced by ChatGPT. The case sparked an FTC inquiry and renewed debates on the psychological risks of AI chatbots for minors. Drawing from this lawsuit, the article examines the mental health implications of AI-driven conversational agents, explores legal and technical measures to protect children, and assesses the role of tort law in regulating AI developers.
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Accent on the Language of Instruction
Language of instruction in European higher education is increasingly contested. Once tied mainly to minority language protection, language policies now shape debates on internationalisation and the spread of English-language teaching. Yet their implications for academic freedom as a legal right remain understudied. This post aims to explore what interpretative guidance on language of instruction can be drawn from other legal systems and how it could inform future interpretations of Article 13 CFR’s linguistic dimension.
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Can Public Procurement Lead Us to a Meat-Free Future?
Public institutions, such as schools, hospitals, prisons, and military bases, serve millions of meals every day. This makes governments some of the largest food purchasers in the world. With such immense buying power, the question arises: could public procurement be used as a tool to promote more sustainable, plant-based diets and reduce meat consumption? The concept of leveraging public procurement law to encourage meat-free meals is gaining momentum. But while the potential is significant, the path forward is anything but simple.
Continue reading >>Academic Freedom of Language
The freedom to teach, conduct research, and study is inseparable from language, which shapes how knowledge is produced, shared, and contested. A legal framework regulating academic language therefore directly affects the scope of academic freedom. Yet, while Article 13 of the EU Charter guarantees that freedom, it makes no mention of linguistic rights. This raises a crucial question: does academic freedom also include the right to choose the language in which it is exercised? The answer, this piece argues, is yes – but its scope depends on whether we look at the institutional or individual dimension of academic freedom.
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Castles of Illiberal Thought
On the hills of Buda, a vast new campus for Mathias Corvinus Collegium (MCC) – an Orbán-linked “think tank” and training ground for illiberal elites – is taking shape. Though still little known internationally, MCC has grown into a sprawling network with over 35 locations across Hungary, the wider Carpathian Basin, and even Brussels. Its recent “report” attacking the EU’s Jean Monnet programme and individual academics as “propagandists” signals how it seeks to shape narratives about Europe and academia. Positioned at the intersection of authoritarian legitimation and elite co-optation, MCC is not just a Hungarian phenomenon – it is a challenge to academic freedom with broader European implications.
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Codifying Belonging
Amid numerous global catastrophes, a quieter crisis at home is strikingly overlooked: a direct attack on equality and, effectively, the denial of Roma people’s rights, their freedom of movement, and dignity as European citizens. The newly adopted Hungary’s 2025 Act on the Protection of Local Identity straightforwardly normalises racial exclusion at the local level under the guise of safeguarding “heritage” and “community values,” and directly empowers local governments to determine who may belong within their borders.
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The Case for an Animal Welfare Levy
Meat consumption imposes externalities on farmed animals. According to basic economic principles, such negative externalities can be addressed through corrective measures, such as taxation, which align private costs with the broader social costs. This raises a novel policy question: should meat be taxed to account for its impact on animal welfare, and if so, what would be the appropriate level of taxation?
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As Open as Necessary?
Vetting researchers, screening funding, and restricting dual-use fields show how science has moved to the heart of national security concerns. Within the EU, “research security” has become central to the strategic autonomy agenda, aiming to protect research from espionage, IP theft, and undue foreign influence. Yet securitising science also risks expanding political control and subordinating research to security and market logics. As such, Article 13 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights must be interpreted to protect academic freedom not only from direct state interference, but also from this subtler colonisation by political and economic systems.
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Meat-Free Nudging
In the last decades, we have learned a great deal about how human beings think and act. We now know far more about our species than we ever did. What we have learned tells us what we might do to change current behavior. In particular, we know a lot about what we might do to nudge meat-free eating. Let’s start with people, and then turn to behavior change.
Continue reading >>Autocratic Legalism vs. Lawfare
Ekrem İmamoğlu, the Mayor of Istanbul, has been imprisoned for 200 days without indictment as the Turkish government weaponizes the judiciary to eliminate political opposition. This case exemplifies a shift from autocratic legalism to "lawfare," where legal tools are used strategically to suppress democratic competition. İmamoğlu’s situation reveals the deepening authoritarianism in Turkey as the ruling regime abandons fair elections in favor of coercive control.
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The Hungarian Roadmap
The Hungarian play script of infringements on academic freedom under the Orbán-regime provides useful junctures on how academic freedom can be both captured and conceptualised. I speak from first-hand experience. As I have chronicled before, I was fired from one university for political reasons; laid off from another after it was forced into exile; and have been working at an institution that has been renamed five times, reorganised, and put under continuous existential pressure since 2010. Five years after the Lex CEU case, it is safe to say that academic freedom is systematically being violated in Hungary. Its roadmap has at least eight lessons to offer.
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Hitting the Mark?
The Lex-CEU judgment clarified that Article 13 CFR protects both the individual and institutional dimensions of academic freedom. While democratic backsliding was clearly “at the heart of this case”, the judgment did not discuss democracy and the rule of law, at all. And despite considerable attention paid to the EU’s action for safeguarding the two EU values, academic freedom has not been methodically discussed in this context, either. Five years later, it is thus time for a systematic approach to academic freedom, treating it also as a democratic value. This can have potential consequences for its integration into the EU’s rule of law toolbox, as well.
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Rehabilitating the “Neocons” is no Zeitenwende
The old adage “the enemy of my enemy is my friend” is prevailing in 2025 Berlin foreign policy circles. The US architects of the 2003 Iraq War were once synonymous with the breakdown of the Transatlantic Alliance and post-War international order. No longer, with Secretary Condoleezza Rice, Ambassador John Bolton and Professor Philip Zelikow all making recent public appearances to offer advice on renewing US global leadership. Their aspiration for intellectual authority in constructing a new international order demands an equal account of their complicity in deconstructing the order that went before it.
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Espionage, Eligibility, and the Integrity of the European Commission
The revelation that Hungarian intelligence officers allegedly operated within EU institutional premises under the watch of the current EU Commissioner Oliver Várhelyi, who at the time served as Hungary’s Permanent Representative to the European Union, poses an unprecedented challenge to the Union's constitutional framework. The Várhelyi affair poses a question the Union has never had to answer so starkly: What happens when a member state treats the institutions it helped create not as a common project, but as hostile territory to be infiltrated and undermined?
Continue reading >>Labour Entitlements for Labouring Farm Animals
Animal rights discourse involves a persistent tension between the welfare paradigm and the fundamental rights approach. As an alternative to both, I argue that labour entitlements offer a more promising and pragmatic path forward. This framework places the legal approach to animals within a framework that recognises both their economic contribution and their subordination to capital.
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Twists and Turns
In the name of academic freedom, copyright in scientific works is entrusted to their researcher-authors. However, academics are strongly incentivised to publish their works in proprietary subscription journals, access to which universities and other research institutions are obliged to pay. The Open Access movement attempts to push back by encouraging or requiring researchers to release copyright in their works openly. While this has given rise to objections based on academic freedom, whether Open Access is compatible with academic freedom is a question that should be approached via a principled examination of the purpose and scope that freedom.
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Transforming the Meat and Dairy Industry through Environmental Litigation
In light of prevalent nationalist populism, what type of strategic litigation against the meat and dairy industry is likely to be most transformative? Activists formulating their strategy need to consider the interrelated questions of what interests to highlight, whom to sue, and what legal norms to invoke, whilst being aware that nationalist populists will try to use any judgement to their advantage.
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Setting the Scene
Academic freedom and freedom of scientific research are enshrined in Article 13 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. For the longest time, however, this Charter article received practically no or very little attention in both scholarship and EU institutional and jurisprudential practice. The developments are many and rapid, and need to be assessed against the Art. 13 CFR-standard whose content is work-in-progress in judicial and policy practice as well as academic work. This symposium seeks to shed light on all of this and stimulate much needed further reflection.
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Transforming the Livestock Sector through Climate Change Mitigation Law
Increasingly, the climate impact of our diet is being recognised. The uncomfortable knowledge that the contents of our dinners can affect planetary health makes the issue of mitigating these emissions contentious, particularly with regard to our consumption of animal products. The role law has historically played and is still playing in creating the current levels of livestock production is often displaced in this debate – instead, we often focus on individual consumer choice or the perceived responsibility of farmers to consider sustainability in their farming practices.
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The Shape of Things to Come
While global meat governance currently faces significant political obstacles to transformative change, early signs point toward a shift toward a more sustainable and responsible global food system. The extension of legal principles such as the no-harm rule to climate change, the emergence of a global governance complex, normative frameworks like One Health, and the recent proliferation of policy initiatives may even signal the early formation of a new global food system architecture. Driven by bottom-up forces, these developments have the potential to reshape current practices and advance sustainable meat governance.
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The Conviction of Nicolas Sarkozy
France often takes pride in calling itself a Republic. Invoking the Republic has even become a political mantra, repeated across the entire political spectrum. Yet the sheer frequency of these references has emptied the term of much of its meaning. The reactions to Nicolas Sarkozy’s conviction suggest that many journalists, politicians, and citizens still struggle to grasp what it truly means to be “republican”. Although the judgment of the Paris Criminal Court is particularly thorough, it has provoked widespread controversy, reopening the enduring debate on political justice in France – while also appearing as a sign of the strengthening of the republican ideal.
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EU Sanctions and the Mirage of Unanimity
The EU’s sanctions framework is meant to work in two steps: unanimity for decisions defining the Union’s approach to “a particular matter of a geographical or thematic nature” under Article 29 TEU, and qualified majority voting for the necessary measures implementing these decisions under Article 215 TFEU. In reality, the two steps are collapsed into one, which magnifies the leverage of a single veto. This post makes the case for resequencing this practice which would realign decision-making with the Treaties’ design, reduce the risk of impasse, and improve speed and flexibility.
Continue reading >>The International Law of Meat Trade
The legal barriers erected by international trade law tend to stymie animal welfare policies. States might, in good faith, fear to violate international trade law. They also use the international trade regimes as a scapegoat for not promoting animal welfare domestically. This happened in Switzerland with foie gras, a cruelty meat product which, after discussion in Parliament, has not been prohibited. The argument was that a market ban might violate WTO law.
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Government “Shutdowns” and the U.S. Constitution
In a wearyingly familiar recurrence, parts of the U.S. government shut down last week after Congress failed to approve funding for the new fiscal year. Though bewildering to foreign observers (and many Americans), these government closures reflect important features of the U.S. system of checks and balances. In that sense, they are a sign of constitutional strength rather than weakness, yet this shutdown, like other recent funding lapses, also shows that acute partisan divisions are complicating American governance.
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Violence and Constitutional Faith
Charlie Kirk’s murder has become a rallying symbol for Christian nationalists, merging religious martyrdom with state power. With America’s secular constitutional faith collapsing, a politicized church turns sacrifice from love into a license for violence. Under Trump, faith and force converge, raising the specter of civil war in America’s own streets.
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Is Meat the New Oil?
For decades, the global community has grappled with the increasingly urgent need for an equitable transition away from fossil fuels – achieving some, but inadequate, progress. Today, there is growing recognition that meat and other animal products, particularly from the industrial systems that enable high levels of meat consumption, also have far-reaching environmental, public health, and social impacts. This industry will need to transform on a similar time frame in order to achieve climate and broader sustainable development goals.
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Stresses and Strains
The European Parliament and the Commission are revising a Framework Agreement governing their mutual relationship. First introduced in 2005, the Agreement sets out how the two institutions intend to manage affairs within the context of their EU treaty-based interdependence. The revised Framework Agreement was agreed on 9 September and has since been formally accepted by the Commission. It now meanders through Parliament for final endorsement. Here I look at the background to the new accord, summarise the main changes, and suggest what it might mean for the Union’s political and legislative processes.
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Exxon Knew. Did Big Beef, too?
Just like the fossil fuel industry, the meat industry teamed up with trade associations, public relations, and “merchants of doubt” to distribute disinformation, downplay their role in global warming, and influence climate policy. Our research showed that all of the 10 largest U.S. meat and dairy companies had directly contributed to efforts that minimized the link between animal agriculture and climate change. For eight of the 10 companies, we found evidence of lobbying on climate issues between 2000 and 2019.Just like the fossil fuel industry, the meat industry teamed up with trade associations, public relations, and “merchants of doubt” to distribute disinformation, downplay their role in global warming, and influence climate policy.
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Unwavering Loyalty
On 5 August 2025, the Cameroonian Constitutional Council upheld a Resolution made by Cameroon’s elections management body to exclude opposition leader Maurice Kamto from the presidential election scheduled for 12 October 2025. The decision effectively eliminates the strongest opposition contender from the race and was misguided by its narrow formalism. While judicial formalism may, in some cases, be defensible for the sake of certainty and predictability, the Constitutional Council’s selective adherence to it makes its motivation questionable.
Continue reading >>How the Sausage Is Made, or Lobbying by the Meat Industry
Despite the negative externalities of meat production, be it for public health, the environment, and, of course, animals themselves, the consumption of meat is still on the rise in many countries in the world, and the regulation of meat production remains lax. One important reason for this lies in the influence that the meat industry has been exerting on lawmaking.
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Terrorists Cannot be Tried Twice
On September 11, 2025, the CJEU ruled that Spain cannot prosecute an ETA leader for terrorist acts after her prior conviction in France for related offenses activates the ne bis in idem principle. The Court emphasized that “same acts” are defined by materially identical conduct, regardless of differing legal classifications in Member States. This decision highlights the limits of parallel prosecutions under EU law, even in complex cross-border terrorism cases.
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Avian Flu Shows the Need for Transformative Meat Governance
Serious zoonotic risks are inherent in intensive animal production and also in non-intensive animal production. Production scale does not make one type more or less dangerous or immune. Zoonotic disease risk is one compelling justification, among many other reasons discussed in the other contributions to this debate, for transformative meat governance. The issues are urgent, and the time is now. We cannot wait for the next major crisis, the next pandemic, or the next headline news of another animal cruelty exposé in the animal agriculture industry.
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Caring for Rights
On August 7, 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights issued its Advisory Opinion OC-31/25, responding to a request submitted by Argentina on the right to care. The Court provided a comprehensive interpretation of the right to care as implicitly embedded in the Convention, connected to other conventional rights, and multifaceted in nature. Care thus becomes an essential component of multiple rights protected by the Convention and binding upon the signing States – implying that soon we might witness the proliferation of respective norms.
Continue reading >>The Environmental and Health Impacts of Animal Source Foods
It is now well-established that our diets and the food systems underpinning them have substantial impacts on both our health and the environment. What is also clear is that without dietary changes towards more balanced and predominantly plant-based diets, there is little chance of limiting global warming, biodiversity loss, and environmental resource use and pollution more generally. This contribution summarises research on the environmental, health, and social aspects related to changes in diets and food systems with a particular focus on the role of animal source foods.
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The Philosophers’ Dinner, or the Difficulty of Dissent
For centuries, philosophical debates on killing animals for food have been self-servingly distorted. And now that the animal-industrial complex has become a global killing machinery, traditional critical thinkers remain silent on nonhuman exploitation. This contribution challenges this silence, trusting in the new radical oppositional thinking.
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Systemic Pathologies
Bulgaria has been marked by worrisome developments pointing to its democratic decline. After the Sofia Court of Appeal upheld the pre-trial detention of the city of Varna’s mayor Blagomir Kotsev, the Supreme Judicial Council refused to apply the six-month limit on Borislav Sarafov’s tenure as acting Prosecutor General. Taken together, these episodes point to a systemic pathology: institutions formally invoke the law, yet interpret it in ways that deprive it of its normative sense. Legality is reduced to form without substance, and no longer protects rights but instead serves as an instrument of institutional self-preservation and control.
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Defund Meat: A Call for Transformative Meat Governance
“Defund Meat” may be an unusual and perhaps provocative title for a critical interdisciplinary discussion around meat in the Anthropocene. At first blush, it may sound like a crude activist slogan, or a hopelessly idealistic call for abolishing the meat system. Upon closer examination, however, it turns out to be a sheep in wolf’s clothing. As I shall argue, defunding meat is a much more commonsensical, pragmatic, and mainstream(able) proposition than its radical overtone might initially suggest.
Continue reading >>Margarette May Macaulay
Since childhood, Margarette May Macaulay has stood up for her own rights and those of people less privileged than herself. A former judge at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and past President of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), she has dedicated her professional and voluntary work to advancing the rights of women, children, migrants, and other marginalized groups.
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A Badge of Dishonour
Calls for the UK to leave the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) have become commonplace in British political debate. Reform UK has announced withdrawal as its day one priority, the centre-right Conservative party could be on the brink of adopting exit from the ECHR as a flagship policy, and even some Labour MPs are thinking the unthinkable.
Continue reading >>This Academic Publication Comes to You Free of Charge
Why Academic Libraries May Nevertheless Pay for Verfassungsblog
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Diese Wissenschaftspublikation ist für Sie kostenlos
Warum wissenschaftliche Bibliotheken trotzdem für den Verfassungsblog zahlen dürfen
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Public Debt Transparency and Global Public Law
As the world faces an intensifying post-pandemic public debt crisis, demands for increased transparency in external public debt management have grown stronger, especially from international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The 2025 Jubilee Year has reinforced those concerns. Nonetheless, a key question persists: how can transparency be institutionalized as a binding principle instead of just a recommended best practice? A key step towards improving public debt transparency is to analyze it through the lens of constitutional law.
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Tunisia’s Missing Court
Public institutions are inherently human and therefore fallible, making constitutions essential as legal guardrails against the abuse of power. Yet constitutional oversight requires not only legal authority but also legitimacy, without which democracies risk repeated crises. In many countries, including Tunisia, this responsibility has been entrusted to constitutional courts. Tunisia’s attempts to establish a fully functioning court – first in 2014, then again in 2022 – highlight the challenges of securing effective and legitimate constitutional oversight.
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Untying Ulysses From The Mast
The first months of the new President of the Republic of Poland’s term leave little room for doubt. Karol Nawrocki is not only planning to initiate the adoption of a new constitution by 2030 – he is already changing the current one, adopted in 1997. In light of this political declaration, one might ask: Why does Poland need a new constitution? But the question doesn’t end there. Regarding President Nawrocki’s proposed constitutional changes we must also ask: What kind of constitution does he have in mind, and what does he seek to achieve through the adoption of a new one?
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Judicial Independence and the Constitution Hill Global Guidelines on Apex Court Appointments
A key goal for any polity in transition should be the establishment of an independent judiciary, alongside the incorporation of new constitutional rules, guidelines – such as those articulated by the Constitution Hill document – to secure judicial independence in the future. Only independent judges can ensure that the aims of transitional justice are achieved.
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Judicial Appointments and the Integrity of Apex Courts
In a world in which democracy appears to be in retreat, and attacks on the judicial branch of government, especially apex courts, are depressingly on the rise, the Constitution Hill Global Guidelines on Apex Court Appointments seek to turn our attention to two key aspects of judicial appointments (the criteria for appointment and the process to be followed) that are too often unexamined.
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Is Something Better Than Nothing?
On 11 September 2025, AG Ćapeta delivered her Opinion in Aucrinde, the very first case to reach the Court on the interpretation of the Recast Evidence Regulation since it became applicable in July 2022. While touching upon several issues, one remark stands out: the AG cited the non-fulfilment of the two-step test from criminal judicial cooperation as a reason for the requested court to execute the foreign order. This passage might signal the first migration of the two-step test to civil judicial cooperation, potentially strengthening fundamental rights safeguards, but also carrying risks given its complexity and inherent logic.
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The Realm of Good Intentions
A recent decision by a Brazilian labour court fined Volkswagen do Brasil approximately US$ 30 million to be paid into a State fund to combat slave labour. This decision was praised on Verfassungsblog by Danielle Pamplona and Hartmut Rank (“historic, consistent, and necessary”). However, I would like to put forward an alternative view, as I believe the decision has two flaws: it does not comply with Brazilian law and lacks practical utility.
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Legal Gender Recognition and Free Movement in the EU
Earlier this month, Advocate General Richard de la Tour delivered his Opinion in Shipov, a case before the European Court of Justice (ECJ) dealing with the gender recognition rights of a trans woman who is originally from Bulgaria, where legal gender recognition is generally impossible. Given the conservative position of Bulgarian courts on this issue, the AG opinion could have far-reaching implications for the rights of trans persons in Bulgaria and beyond.
Continue reading >>Protecting Apex Courts from Capture
At a time when the quality of judicial appointments can determine whether democracy erodes or endures, the reflections in this symposium could not be more timely. The Guidelines are not a rigid blueprint, but rather an invitation to structured, informed debate. We hope that the ideas shared here contribute to strengthening apex courts—and, with them, the democratic systems they are meant to uphold.
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Falling Far and Fast
I have been studying and teaching First Amendment law for more than forty years, and in all that time I have been more or less confident that basic minima of freedom of speech would remain unscathed in the United States. It was the one constitutional right that inspired widespread allegiance and agreement. But this week, for the first time, I have become frightened that freedom of speech in America might actually be endangered. Authoritarianism, with its trademark suppression of free political discussion, looms on our horizon.
Continue reading >>The Judicial Overhaul Post October 7
In the span of one year, Israel experienced two historic crises: a constitutional crisis triggered by the 2023 judicial overhaul and a national security emergency following Hamas’ October 7 attack. Either event alone could have destabilized democratic institutions, yet their convergence deepened threats to Israel’s liberal democracy. Contrary to the expectations of many Israelis, the security crisis did not halt the judicial reform process. Instead, it served as a smokescreen that enabled the government’s continued pursuit of populist constitutional transformation.
Continue reading >>Balancing Rent Control and Property Rights
Across major European cities, the housing crisis has moved from warning signs to full-scale emergency. As housing production slowed down and public stock was sold off or left to decay, European governments increasingly turned housing over to market forces. To deal with the stark consequences, governments have responded with a familiar tool: rent control. But these interventions raise complex legal questions. How far can states go in regulating the rental market without infringing upon landlords’ constitutional property rights? And what happens when these laws are tested before the courts?
Continue reading >>Neither Reform nor Reconstruction
Contemporary international law is in crisis, but not yet in a systemic crisis. Based on historical experience, therefore, a reconstruction of international law is not to be expected for the time being. In the foreseeable future, the existing system will continue to exist, but in the absence of meaningful reform it will also be further weakened. We must prepare ourselves for a prolonged period of stagnation and even atrophy, a progressive wasting away and marginalisation of norms and institutions built in the past.
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Der Kampf gegen Gender-Apartheid
Hoffnung durch Rechenschaft
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The ECJ’s Opportunity to Address the EU’s Climate Mitigation Obligations
The pending EU-Mercosur Trade Agreement raises fundamental questions regarding the Union’s climate mitigation obligations under both EU and international law. Members of the European Parliament are considering a request for an opinion from the European Court of Justice (ECJ) on the agreement’s compatibility with EU law. Such a review is warranted, as the agreement appears incompatible with the EU’s mitigation duties.
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Blurring the Divide between Legal and Political Liability
The Thai Constitutional Court removed Paetongtarn Shinawatra, the Prime Minister of Thailand, from office due to a scandal involving a leaked phone call. Paetongtarn was accused of carrying out her office “dishonestly” and “unethically”. The suspension order demonstrates the continued judicial encroachment upon the political branch. It also highlights the danger of the 2017 Constitution’s moralistic obsession with unrealistically clean and pure politics.
Continue reading >>A Warm Body in the Loop
Brussels has recently signalled a shift in its approach to technology regulation, with a focus on simplification through various Omnibus packages. In the digital context and beyond the stated goal of cutting “red tape,” these packages offer an opportunity to reconsider the foundations of human involvement in regulation across EU legal instruments in the age of AI. This post examines human-AI interaction in EU technology regulation and examines whether such involvement is meaningful or merely symbolic.
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Two Courts, Two Approaches
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ Advisory Opinion AO-32/25 marks a major advance in climate jurisprudence. Comparing it with the ECtHR’s 2024 climate rulings, this contribution shows how much further the Inter-American Court goes in recognising the climate crisis as a global emergency, foregrounding equity and climate justice, affirming extraterritorial jurisdiction, broad standing, and ultimately recognising an autonomous human right to a healthy climate.
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Learning From Oppressed Groups How to Resist Silently
"Let me put it bluntly, even at the risk of upsetting some colleagues. Although I do not underestimate the mightiness of the brutal, explicit and covert censorship practices at work in countries like France, Germany, and the United States, while also being aware that some colleagues have preferred to act than to speak out, I have been deeply disappointed by the great majority of my tenured peers who have disturbingly remained silent and passive, thus religiously abiding by the bans and suppression practices in place"
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Killing For Show
On September 2 and 15, President Trump ordered the United States Navy to destroy small speed boats in the Caribbean. In both cases, all on board died. International lawyers have uniformly criticized the killings as unlawful. The President and his closest advisers have repeated that they simply do not care whether the killings violated the law. This may well be President Trump's most dangerous assault on the rule of law to date. And, yet, government officials in states long committed to the rule of law at home and abroad have remained largely silent.
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Judicial Convergence on Climate Change
In just over a year, three of the world’s most prominent courts have addressed States’ legal obligations in the context of climate change. Although each court examined various questions from its own unique institutional and legal standpoint, their conclusions showed a significant convergence on several key issues, including the role of science, the standard of due diligence, the duty to cooperate, the role of private actors, the importance of human rights, and the need for reparations. This blog post explores each court’s consideration of these issues.
Continue reading >>Null and Void
A judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) from September 4 confirmed that the Chamber of Extraordinary Control and Public Affairs of the Supreme Court in Poland is illegitimate. The ruling not only exposes the collapse of judicial legitimacy at the highest level, but also shows how chaos in the Polish judiciary disrupts the lives of ordinary citizens, with proceedings suspended because higher courts’ judgments are void. For Waldemar Żurek, the new Minister of Justice, it offers a powerful argument to accelerate efforts to restore the rule of law before the political window closes.
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A Right to Defend the Environment
In a remarkable yet underexplored section, the IACtHR establishes a right to defend the environment, along with corresponding duties of States to protect environmental defenders. By recognizing environmental defenders as essential actors in democratic climate governance, the IACtHR’s advisory opinion advances a bold vision of environmental democracy that positions civic engagement as a vital precondition for legitimate and effective climate action.
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Litigating Over Independent Media
Since the European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) fully entered into force on August 8, the key question is how far it can go in securing independent media. Beyond transparency rules and safeguards for editorial independence, Article 3 may establish a justiciable right to independent media – enabling individuals to challenge violations of media pluralism before national courts.
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Bolsonaro’s Conviction
Last week, former president Jair Bolsonaro was sentenced by the Brazilian Supreme Court to 27 years in prison for orchestrating a conspiracy to stay in power after losing the 2022 election. Some high-ranking military officers involved in the plot also received lighter sentences. Brazil could serve as a lesson to the world about combating authoritarian populism, but the expectation that the decision will restrain the military should be treated with caution.
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The Fifth Republic Under Strain
France’s new prime minister, Sébastien Lecornu – the fifth since 2022 – faces a task many already call impossible. Appointed by President Emmanuel Macron on September 9, just one day after the Bayrou government fell on a confidence vote, Lecornu must assemble a working majority – or at least prevent a majority coalition against him – to pass the budget by December 31.
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The Double Effect of “Double Standards”
Both Erosion and Strengthening of International Law
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Doppelfolge der „Double Standards“
Erosion und Stärkung des Völkerrechts zugleich
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From Sidelines to Center Stage
The trilogy of climate advisory opinions from the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and the International Court of Justice marks a watershed moment not only for climate litigation but also for understanding the evolving role of Conferences of the Parties (COPs) in international law. This post analyses the courts' engagement with COPs and argues that it represents another step in clarifying their institutional role in global governance – one that elevates these treaty bodies from largely diplomatic forums to authoritative interpreters and potentially norm-creators within treaty regimes.
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Moving towards a SAFE Defense Policy in Europe
Russia’s attack on Ukraine has presented Europe with new challenges regarding security. As a response, the EU adopted the so-called SAFE Regulation in 2025. It is based on Article 122 TFEU and is intended to accelerate efforts to achieve autonomous defense capability. By choosing this legal basis, the Commission continues a trend which begun in the pandemic and was reinforced during the energy crisis: relying on emergency competences without parliamentary involvement. But whether this exceptional provision can legitimize the profound changes facing the Union is doubtful.
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International Law’s Administrative Law Turn and the Paris Agreement
In the recent Advisory Opinion on States’ Obligations in respect of Climate Change, various remarks by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) lean into an increasingly “administrative” law turn in international law. In this blog post, we investigate this phenomenon by looking at the ways in which States’ preparation, communication, and maintenance of their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement are coming to be characterised by requirements or standards with a domestic administrative law tone.
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Isn’t it Ironic?
Since we do believe in the power of sharing personal experiences and in solidarity, we decided to share ours through this symposium as they highlight the different shapes and forms that silencing attempts and chilling effects can take, as well as the salience of solidarity in academia. They further unearth the hidden costs associated with pursuing publication projects that resist topical normalization and try instead to re-open space for important – yet often uncomfortable – conversations in a highly polarized political environment.
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Is the Hungarian Block Really a Legal Issue?
This post engages with the exchange between Spieker and von Bogdandy and Dawson and van den Brink over the Hungarian block in the European Council (EUCO) and Council on CFSP issues. The issue at the heart of this debate is not one of fantasticalness but of formal legal orthodoxy. The Hungarian block is not a legal constitutional issue but a political one; one that has been reinforced by the 30 June 2025 Council decision to extend the sanctions. Accordingly, any suggested response ought to be political rather than legal.
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Whose Common Sense?
On September 8, 2025, in the case of Noem v. Vazquez Perdomo, the Supreme Court signaled its support for ICE’s continued use of racial profiling in immigration policing. By staying a lower court’s restraining order, the Court allowed agents once again to stop and arrest people based on how they look, the language they speak, where they live, and the kind of work they do. The closest the Court came to providing reasons for its intervention came in the form of a non-precedential concurrence authored by Justice Kavanaugh. In it, “common sense” is doing the heavy lifting, just as it has in the Court’s immigration policing jurisprudence for decades, at the expense of facts, evidence, and individual rights.
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The Logic of Domestic Military Deployments
With all the outlandish legal arguments the Trump administration has deployed in the nine months since Inauguration Day, it has been genuinely puzzling that the president hasn’t yet invoked the Insurrection Act. Previously undisclosed facts revealed during the Newsom v. Trump bench trial, however, shed light both on how the motivations for these military deployments are being internalized by the military establishment and why there is not yet demand for invoking provisions of the Insurrection Act.
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To Uniformity and Beyond
After the Hungarian judiciary had already faced controversy over the preliminary reference procedure under Article 267 TFEU in the question phase, a new tension has emerged. The supreme judicial body in Hungary now seeks to intervene in the answer phase of the procedure – aiming to shape the referring court’s interpretation and application of the CJEU’s ruling. These dynamics foreshadow an institutional conflict over how the Hungarian judiciary internalizes and operationalizes the jurisprudence of the CJEU. At stake is the fulfillment of the principle of sincere cooperation enshrined in Article 4(3) TEU.
Continue reading >>A Step Forward in Italian Climate Litigation
Climate litigation achieved an important milestone in Italy. In a landmark order on 18 July 2025, the Supreme Court of Cassation confirmed that Italian courts may assert jurisdiction over climate-related damages for the first time. The ruling opens the door to holding both public and private actors liable for climate inaction.
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Volkswagen, Oxen, Timber, and Slave Labour in Brazil
Last week, a Brazilian Court ordered Volkswagen to pay the historic sum of US$ 30 million for collective moral damages for slave labour in the Amazon during Brazil’s military dictatorship (1964-1985). The judgment contains numerous significant findings that will serve as important references for future cases involving serious corporate human rights violations. In this piece, however, we focus on its reliance on the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, which not only impose due diligence obligations on Volkswagen but also play a key role in strengthening collective memory.
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Rainbow in the Dark
On 16 July, the Hong Kong government introduced the Registration of Same-sex Partnerships Bill in the Hong Kong Legislative Council. This move was mandated by two decisions of Hong Kong’s apex court in a 2023 case. The Bill grants same-sex couples who have already registered overseas the rights to have their relationships legally recognised. The decisions came as a beam of light at the grim time of Hong Kong’s authoritarian turn. They can inspire judicial strategies to navigate a liberal enclave within the authoritarian regime, and demonstrate the correlation between gender backlash and constitutional degradation.
Continue reading >>Introducing the Symposium “Knowledge Under Occupation: Academic Freedom and Palestine on the Global Stage”
Pressures on universities and scholars to conform to prevailing political orthodoxies appear to be intensifying, often under the guise of safeguarding neutrality or combating alleged bias. This symposium intends to make a small contribution to re-opening the ever more restricted space for academic freedom and seek to continue to push against closing channels.
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Déjà Vu
At the resumption of political activity after the summer, France’s Prime Minister François Bayrou unexpectedly announced that he would use his constitutional prerogative to ask for a parliamentary vote of confidence on September 8. The main decision now facing the French president – who has repeatedly declared that he will not leave office early – is whether to attempt to construct a new governing formula within the current parliament or to call new elections just fourteen months after the last dissolution. Neither option is attractive, and both would effectively reset French politics to 2024.
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Personhood Across Borders
On 10 July 2025, the Swiss State Secretariat for International Finance recognized the Spanish saltwater lagoon Mar Menor as a legal subject – at least to the extent of granting it access to environmental information. This decision followed a request for information submitted by the lagoon’s legal representative. The case demonstrates that the legal personhood of ecosystems can operate across national borders. Could ecosystems like the Mar Menor, in the future, bring damages actions against companies whose activities in another country cause ecological harm?
Continue reading >>Epistemic Authority and the Right to Science in AO-32/25
Traditionally, the right to science as occupied a marginal place within the contentious and advisory architecture of the Inter-American system. However, in its Advisory Opinion–AO-32/25, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights changes this framework by shifting the right to science from a peripheral tool of knowledge dissemination to a central axis of disputes over epistemic authority in public policy formation. This repositioning is not merely about expanding the scope of an undervalued right but about redefining its legal status based on the structural transformations imposed by the climate crisis on the normative production forms and institutional recognition of knowledge.
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Authoritarians Who Hate Judicial Accountability
In Slovakia, a unique situation is unfolding. The country is ruled by an authoritarian government that restricts fundamental rights of its citizens, puts independent institutions under political control, exploits fast-track legislative procedures, and threatens the judges of the constitutional court. Yet, this same government is in favour of more judicial autonomy, less accountability, and higher salaries for judges. The government thus seems to have hit upon a convenient strategy: granting judges greater benefits in exchange for their loyalty.
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The Feasibility of Security Guarantees for Ukraine
The question of possible security guarantees is at the heart of current efforts to end the war against Ukraine. White House special envoy Steve Witkoff stated on 17 August 2025 that “the United States and other European nations could effectively offer Article 5-like language to cover a security guarantee,” which would serve as a trade-off for Russia’s insistence that Ukraine should not be able to join NATO. This has brought the term “Article 5-like protection” into focus. The feasibility of such a guarantee appears impossible given legal and practical obstacles. Russia is demanding untenable concessions from Ukraine in exchange for its consent. The prospect of a credible deterrent is also missing, which is why the entire process appears to be the Russians playing for time.
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Disapplication Unbound
Legal scholars welcomed the Apace ruling by the CJEU as a “total victory” for liberals supporting human rights and the independence of the judiciary. But the ruling has two central faut lines: it fails to acknowledge that Article 37 APD is not unconditional: its direct effect is, at best, dubious. Second, in Member States like Italy, where the judiciary makes extensive use of disapplication in asylum matters, the laissez-faire approach of the CJEU paves the way for legal uncertainty and exposes judges to populist attacks.
Continue reading >>Compound Interest
Last week, President Trump purported to fire a member of the Federal Reserve Board, Dr. Lisa Cook. And although he appointed Jerome Powell Chairman of the Federal Reserve during his first term, Trump has since directed constant scorn at Powell and repeatedly threatened to remove him as well. This controversy forms part of Trump’s broader effort to assert sweeping control over the executive branch. It also reveals his particular interest in loosening U.S. monetary policy. Yet his actions carry significant legal and economic risks of their own.
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The Evasion of Historical Responsibility?
The International Court Advisory’s advisory opinion on Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change has been celebrated as marking the start of a “new era of climate reparations.” In my contribution, I want to draw attention to how, even as the ICJ opened the door to climate reparations, it was evasive on the key temporal questions that are central to any future claims about reparations owed by individual countries for their historical greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, the advisory opinion avoided addressing how colonial histories continue to shape present day climate injustices and the need to decolonize international law.
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The School Bell That Rings for War
On 1 September, known in Russia as Knowledge Day, thousands of schoolchildren were once again welcomed back with the ringing of the symbolic first bell, marking the beginning of new school year. However, this school bell does not toll for knowledge or peace. Instead, it symbolizes how Russia has transformed schools into factories for transmitting state-sponsored propaganda to younger generations. In this blog, I explain how Russia is strategically weaponizing the educational system to raise a militarized generation of subjects that accepts and embraces the normalcy of war. It seeks to achieve this goal, inter alia, through military training and involvement of children in the production of combat equipment; obligating teachers to teach state-mandated falsification of history; and forcing cultural assimilation of Ukrainians living in occupied territories.
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“Doing the Utmost”
The ICJ found that some norms, previously thought not binding and falling under the unfettered discretion of States (e.g. the content of NDCs) are in fact binding obligations of conduct based on a due diligence standard, and their breach gives rise to state responsibility. In this blog post, I address some pertinent issues regarding due diligence as addressed by the ICJ, as well as ITLOS and the IACtHR. In particular, I focus on the relationship between obligations of result and obligations of conduct, the nature of due diligence, factors to determine its content, and the legal consequences of not acting with the required diligence.
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From One ICJ to Another
In early August, Judge Julia Sebutinde of the International Court of Justice was reported as saying that “The Lord is counting on me to stand on the side of Israel”, and that the “whole world was against Israel, including my country.” These statements appear to contradict the requirement that Judges remain impartial. Following these remarks, a non-governmental organization called the International Commission of Jurists sent a communication to the President of the Court to urge him to investigate Judge Sebutinde’s remarks. While this move was met with general acclaim on social media, it could likewise be perceived as attempting to put external pressure on the Court to reach a certain decision.
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Hanan Ashrawi
Few advocates of Palestinian liberation have become as familiar a name as Dr. Hanan Ashrawi. A principled activist and gifted speaker with a formidable academic background, she rose to international prominence during the First Intifada in 1988. Later, with the start of the Madrid Conference in 1991, she caught the world’s attention as the official representative of the Palestinian delegation.
Continue reading >>Overcoming Objections to Overcome the Hungarian Veto
This June, we proposed ways to overcome a Hungarian veto on EU sanctions against Russia. Our proposal prompted Mark Dawson and Martijn van den Brink to write a sharp response, arguing that we had ventured beyond the confines of serious legal scholarship into the realm of the fantastical. Our critics and we seem to live in different realities. When reading Dawson’s and van den Brink’s piece, it feels like the Russian war of aggression against Ukraine does not exist. Yet, there lies an uncomfortable truth at the heart of our proposal, one that our critics fail to recognize: the Russian war might grow into an existential threat to the European Union.
Continue reading >>Marx, Enemy of the Constitution?
Is it constitutionally permissible to hold a Marx reading group in the German Republic? According to a recent judgment of Hamburg’s Administrative Court: unclear. A reading group can apparently only take place as long as it does not “actively and combatively” promote Marx’s ideas, since “the social theory formulated by Marx” is in essential points “incompatible with the principles of the liberal democratic basic order” of the Federal Republic. The judgement is worth examining in detail.
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Verfassungsfeind Marx?
Darf man in der Bundesrepublik unbehelligt einen Lesekreis zu Marx veranstalten? Laut Verwaltungsgericht Hamburg: Unklar. Stattfinden darf der Lesekreis ohne Einmischung staatlicher Behörden anscheinend nur, solange er sich nicht „aktiv-kämpferisch“ für Marx‘ Ideen einsetzt, da „die von Marx begründete Gesellschaftstheorie“ in wesentlichen Punkten mit den „Prinzipien der freiheitlichen demokratischen Grundordnung nicht vereinbar“ sei. Es lohnt sich, dieses Urteil im Detail anzuschauen.
Continue reading >>Lithium, Law, and the Limits of EU Sustainability
In July 2024, the European Commission entered into a strategic partnership on critical raw materials with Serbia by signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on sustainable raw materials and battery value chains. Three days before signing the MoU, the Serbian government had decided to renew the spatial plan for the realization of the “Jadar” project, which includes the exploitation of the mineral Jadarite in western Serbia. These two events have signaled the readiness of the Serbian regime to allow lithium mining in western Serbia and the EU’s commitment to exploit a source of critical raw material (CRM) in its neighborhood, particularly in the Western Balkans.
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Can Africa Still Drill?
While the ICJ found that any State suffering from climate change can bring charges against others for their contribution to climate change, the opinion does not distinguish between the obligations of developed and developing States (except where treaty law already imposes different obligations). African States and the African Union have continued to support fossil fuel development on the continent. In light of this advisory opinion, what obligations are imposed on developing States, like African States, to protect the climate, particularly regarding the further development of fossil fuel industries?
Continue reading >>The Other Side of Trade
On 10 August 2025, Germany announced it would suspend the export of offensive weapons to Israel, citing the risk of mass civilian casualties during Israel’s planned incursion into Gaza City. Yet Germany’s military trade with Israel is a two-way street. As crucial as Berlin’s arms exports are its growing imports of Israeli weapons, military technology, and security expertise, including training.
Continue reading >>Not a Curtain Drop, but an Abuse of Rights
The recent Grand Chamber decision in Kovačević v. Bosnia and Herzegovina might send shockwaves through the legal and political landscape in Bosnia and Herzegovina or even across Council of Europe states, as Professor Joseph Marko suggests in his article. However, his analysis presents an incomplete picture of the Court’s decision and overlooks critical context necessary for a full understanding of why the Grand Chamber declared the application inadmissible.
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Closing the Silences
At COP 30 in Belém, ministers will wrangle over how “sufficient” the new climate-finance goal must be, and whether “phase-down” of coal is a slogan or a legal trigger. In Brussels, the 2040 climate target faces the same test, while in Geneva, the WTO’s fossil-subsidy reform stalls over which tax breaks to cut. Read through a strict consent-only lens, and these are political choices. Read through the ICJ’s frame – science, equity, no-harm, precaution – they become legal ones: finance must be capable of delivering 1.5°C and repairing loss and damage, coal and subsidy policies must be plausibly 1.5°C-compatible, and the burden falls on governments to prove it.
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Trump’s Manufactured Emergencies
The Trump administration’s actions in Washington D.C. represent the continuation of interconnected political and rhetorical tactics that the president has used since his second inauguration that we should expect to see again and again – using misleading or downright fabricated information as the basis for declaring an emergency, relying on the fabricated emergency to invoke emergency legal authorities, and then relying on those authorities to take actions that exceed even the broad powers that such emergencies confer under the law. Looking ahead, we can expect the administration to run this same playbook in additional, predictable ways.
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The Next Episode On Gender-Based Asylum
One of the CJEU’s most talked-about recent cases asks a simple question: when does someone belong to a “particular social group” under EU refugee law? On 11 June 2024 in K, L v Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid (K, L), the CJEU found that, women who genuinely came to identify themselves with the fundamental value of equality between women and men during their stay in the host country can be regarded as belonging to a particular social group. However, the implementation of the K, L judgment has led to a divergence between national policy and national courts over the meaning of “identification with the fundamental value of equality between women and men.”
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The Case for a Royal Commission on Britain and Europe
How much longer can Britain’s unstable relationship with the European Union be tolerated? While Prime Minister Keir Starmer vocally supports European unity regarding Ukraine, he denies it for his own country. Nearly ten years after the referendum, the costs of Brexit are rising, and public opinion is increasingly favouring closer ties with the EU. This post suggests that the current deadlock calls for a Royal Commission to overcome parliamentary paralysis, provide an evidence-based assessment of post-Brexit realities, and lay the groundwork for strategic decisions about the UK’s role in Europe.
Continue reading >>Weaponising Disqualification
On August 20, 2025, the Indian Government introduced three constitutional amendment bills of massive implications in the Parliament. Together, the bills aim to establish a mandatory legal sanction providing that any minister can be removed from their ministerial office if arrested or detained for thirty consecutive days on charges carrying a potential sentence of five years or more. At first glance, the bills may seem laudatory, founded on the expectation of ethical standards for high constitutional office. Yet, one can clearly anticipate the gross impending misuse of this law towards establishing a hegemonic BJP rule in India.
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Palestine Action, Proscription and Proportionality
In July, the UK government has decided to proscribe the organisation Palestine Action. The order means that people are criminalised not just for expressing support for terrorist acts, but for the proscribed organisation. As a result, over 500 people were reportedly arrested at a protest in London on 9 August. Whether the decision pushes anti-terrorism law too far and violates freedom of expression will be assessed by the courts at a later date. If the decision survives a legal challenge, it could pave the way for proscription to be used in relation to a broader range of groups in future.
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Pardons, Criminal Theory, and Political Sociology
Donald Trump’s use of the presidential pardon has transformed a constitutional power into a tool of personal loyalty and partisan retribution. Rather than correcting injustice, his pardons reward allies, shield loyalists, and punish critics. This shift reflects not only a philosophical challenge to the logic of criminal law, but also a deeper sociopolitical trend: the erosion of accountability through transactional governance. As legal boundaries blur and institutional checks falter, the rule of law itself is drawn into the orbit of authoritarian impulse.
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Is Montevideo Sinking?
Following the ICJ’s opinion, only time will tell whether the Montevideo criteria are themselves “sinking,” and what might replace them. It remains doubtful whether sunken States could be sovereign equals to States with territory, as they would necessarily rely on the goodwill of their host State to cede jurisdiction to some degree. Even though the ICJ’s opinion is a big step forward (especially) for small island States, it cannot, by itself, preserve a State’s full sovereignty once its territory is submerged. Small island States have contributed the least to climate change, yet now face an existential threat. This unfair fate must be prevented. I
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Statehood in the Climate Crisis
In this blog post, we zero in on the part of the ICJ's climate advisory opinion that concerns statehood. Specifically, we analyze the ICJ’s restatement of the presumption of state continuity, examining both what the Court says and doesn’t say, and what the implications could be. We also consider the individual opinions that discuss statehood and add some brief reflections on the applicability of Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (Montevideo Convention) and on State extinction. Our analysis is preliminary, and certainly much ink will be spilled on the ICJ’s remarks going forward.
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Eroding Independence
On 7 August 2025, India’s Leader of the Opposition Rahul Gandhi made serious allegations of large-scale voter fraud. Examining electoral rolls covering approximately 650,000 voters in one state assembly constituency within a parliamentary constituency, Gandhi claimed that over 100,000 voters had significant irregularities that hinted at manipulation. This post does not discuss the veracity of these allegations. Rather, the goal here is to contextualise these allegations against the backdrop of a sharp decline in the independence and trustworthiness of the Election Commission of India.
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Against Abusive Essentialism
Dixon identifies two means of abusive feminism – formalism and descriptive representation – both of which have found currency in the South Asian context. The South Asian region has a long history of female leaders of states, but their rule demonstrates that no easy causations can be drawn between descriptive presence of women in positions of power and democracy. Women can be and are good and bad leaders just as men. The framework of abusive feminism can help us recognize the dynamic nature of authoritarian rule and take a contextual, multi-institutional, and intersectional approach in our responses.
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When Custom Binds All States
The ICJ affirmed that States have binding customary obligations to prevent significant harm to the climate system and to cooperate in addressing the crisis. Rejecting arguments that climate treaties override these duties, the Court clarified that non-parties remain bound. While acknowledging law’s limits, the ICJ’s opinion provides a powerful legal foundation to guide climate negotiations, litigation, and collective action worldwide.
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Abusive+ in Brazil
In the recently published article Abusive Feminism, Rosalind Dixon problematizes the weaponization of “feminism” by actors as a means to erode, rather than promote, democratic ends, and provides a path for those who wish to resist it. Brazil offers powerful examples of the phenomenon identified by Dixon, confirming many of her conclusions – and, conversely, unearths aspects that could help us deepen our understanding of how abuse happens.
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Abusive Feminism in Power
The concept of abusive feminism proves useful in interrogating the true nature of Meloni’s government. Rosalind Dixon defines abusive feminism as the use of feminist language and symbols by authoritarian or illiberal regimes to legitimize anti-democratic or oppressive practices. Crucial is the distinction between a “feminine” government and a “feminist” one: as Dixon warns, the mere fact of having a woman serving as Prime Minister does not, in itself, guarantee the pursuit of a genuine gender equality agenda. Meloni is a case in point.
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Ima Polonia
In Hebrew, there’s a figure known as the ima Polonia – the “Polish mother” – a woman who offers love that feels more like emotional leverage than care. Poland’s recent politics have mirrored this dynamic. Between 2015 and 2023, under the alt-right Zjednoczona Prawica government, the image of the woman, be it as judge, activist, or politician, was often instrumentalised to undermine progressive, pro-democratic causes. The government framed its actions as caring rather than punishing (just like ima Polonia), using women not to promote their rights but to support anti-feminist changes.
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A Panoply of Consequences?
Among the most significant – but underexplored – aspects of the ICJ’s climate advisory opinion is its treatment of reparations and remedies. This blog post unpacks the legal consequences outlined by the ICJ, examining what the opinion says – and does not say – about how climate-related harm should be remedied. At the heart of this analysis lies a central question: can the affirmation of legal responsibility, without clear guidance on the design of reparations, meaningfully advance climate justice?
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“Do(n’t) Cry for Me Argentina”
Through abusive feminism, political leaders use elements of feminism as a shell devoid of content. Two central elements are needed: (a) “a pool of suitably qualified women who oppose feminist goals or substantive commitments to gender equality,” and (b) “a public that assumes that in general ‘women help women’”. Argentina offers a timely example of this trend: its current vice-president, Victoria Villarruel, has shown a political position that reveals the legitimization of an illiberal project committed to dismantling gender equality protections and attacking human rights commitments.
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Reproductive Violence in Tigray
A new July 2025 investigative report highlights the devastating weaponized sexual and reproductive violence unleashed during the 2020-2022 Tigray conflict in Ethiopia. Based on hundreds of medical records and health worker testimonies, the report documents mass rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, and sexual torture of Tigrayan women and children by Ethiopian and Eritrean soldiers. The deliberate reproductive dimension of violence in Tigray constitutes clear violations of both the Maputo Protocol and international law, amounting to war crimes and crimes against humanity.
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A Fallen Curtain and Open Questions
On 25 June 2025, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights delivered its Decision on Kovačević v. BiH. This ruling could completely change the legal assessment of strict ethnic quota systems in political institutions for worse. While the case originates from Bosnia and Herzegovina, it will likely have far-reaching political consequences for other power-sharing systems in and beyond Europe, as well. Crucially, it is prone to “overrule” all previous judgments of the ECtHR against BiH. This means that it will render all future efforts to support constitutional reform in the country futile, because it seems to legitimize the de facto strict ethno-national cartel of power materialized in its constitution.
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Weaponising Gender in South Africa’s Chief Justice Appointment
Ros Dixon argues that “[p]lacing women in high office reflects commitments to fairness, diversity and equality of opportunity. But it also creates opportunities for anti-feminist, would-be authoritarians to use women’s descriptive representation to advance and legitimate their own sexist, authoritarian projects”. The South African Judicial Services Commission’s interviews for the country’s Chief Justice in 2022 provide a fascinating example of this phenomenon in the context of political struggles around corruption and accountability in South Africa.
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Harmonizing Sources, Hardening Duties
The ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate change may come to be remembered as the moment international law explicitly rose to the climate challenge. Yet, what the opinion offers is not a new edifice but a sturdier legal architecture. By advancing an “all of the above” approach to international law’s sources; by treating these sources as interlocking parts of a living legal system; and by recognizing erga omnes and erga omnes partes duties with concrete consequences for responsibility, the Court has given States, courts and litigants a legally rigorous, source‑sensitive map.
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The Texas Gambit
American politics at present is defined by the daily discarding of long-standing norms. The latest ignominy involves the brazen attempt, by the Republican leadership of the State of Texas, to gerrymander the state’s congressional districts to give the GOP control over an additional five seats; a move that, if successful, would raise the number of U.S. House seats held by Texas Republicans. What is unprecedented in the Texas situation is both the origin and timing of the attempted gerrymander, and the gaudy theatricality that has followed.
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Anti-Feminism versus Abusive Feminism
Some of the world’s most powerful leaders have openly embraced an agenda that is overtly hostile to diversity, equity and inclusion, and often overtly anti-feminist. These discursive and behavioral attacks have been accompanied by a range of anti-feminist policy changes. As liberalism and democracy often erode together, it is no surprise that the growth of anti-feminism is associated with democratic backsliding. What is more surprising is that many of these anti-feminist, would-be autocrats have engaged in a parallel set of tactics that appear to endorse, rather than challenge, certain feminist ideas.
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Of Warming and Warzones
Despite mounting attention to the impacts of military activities and conflicts on climate mitigation and adaptation in recent years, the issue remains largely absent from international legal scrutiny. Therefore, the very fact that several States and organizations raised it during the advisory proceedings held last December left the few scholars and practitioners working on this issue hopeful. This post reviews how the issue of armed conflicts and military emissions was addressed during the ICJ advisory proceedings. Despite the ICJ’s silence, the post highlights a few interpretative openings that may have legal implications for the regulation of wartime climate harms and explores what the ICJ’s ruling means for the legal visibility and accountability of military emissions.
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Colombia’s Ketchup-Bottle-Case
It may well be Colombian literary culture shining through when the presiding judge of the case against former President Álvaro Uribe cited the French aristocrat: “As Montesquieu rightly said, the law must be like death, which spares no one”. The verdict of 12 years in prison has been 14 years in the making. The most important implication of this case is neither the verdict itself, nor the length of the sentence – it is its nature as a “Ketchup-Bottle-Case”: the opening for more than 100 cases in the system that include crimes against humanity carrying life-in-prison sentences.
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Litigation v. Politics
The Trump Administration appears committed to crush any and all opposition by the aggressive use of national power. Given the constitutional status of federalism within the United States, these attempts at control from Washington are provoking a wave of litigation. However, it is also important to pay attention to the political means by which states can engage in resistance. A major issue of the moment is whether the Texas Legislature will adhere to the strong demand by Donald Trump that it redraw the legislative districts; and whether Democrats within the state will succeed in their defiance.
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State Responsibility and the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion on Climate Change
After the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued its advisory opinion on Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change, many observers were quick to conclude that it “[opens] the door to a cascade of lawsuits” (Politico). The opinion is indeed an important confirmation that the rules of State responsibility apply in the climate change context. In this post, I assess the ICJ’s treatment of State responsibility in light of the particularities of climate change, especially the plurality of States that contribute to, and suffer from, climate harm. The advisory opinion places trust in the capabilities and flexibility of the applicable rules, yet defers complex decisions on questions like causation to a case-by-case assessment.
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Game, Set, Review
The long-standing tension between private sports arbitration and the EU’s system of fundamental rights came to a head on 1 August 2025, when the Court of Justice of the European Union delivered its judgment in RFC Seraing v. FIFA. The case addresses whether arbitral awards rendered by the Court of Arbitration for Sport can be insulated from review by EU national courts when EU law is at stake. The judgment represents a restrained but meaningful intervention by the CJEU into the autonomy of sports arbitration, seeking to balance the authority of CAS with the imperative of protective fundamentals rights under EU law.
Continue reading >>Three Opposites in Taiwan’s Refracted Constitution
Civil society groups have initiated a mass recall movement in Taiwan, targeting the main opposition party KMT. On 26 July, it received an electoral setback. The movement has been hailed as the most recent evidence for Taiwan’s robust democracy. But its result suggests a more complicated and nuanced story concerning Taiwan’s constitutional image.
Continue reading >>Sex Testing on Trial
Two global sport governing bodies – World Athletics and World Boxing – decided to institute genetic testing. Both now require all athletes intending to compete in women’s events to undergo a genetic test. The intent is to exclude some women, including those with certain congenital “differences of sex development”, from women’s sport. This revives an old model – last widely used in 1990s – which was deemed unscientific, unethical, and ultimately unworkable. In today’s legal landscape, this renewed approach faces even more pitfalls.
Continue reading >>Crisis and Legal Scholarship
References to crisis abound. Since the 2008 financial crash and with the popularisation of the term “polycrisis” after the COVID-19 pandemic, the idea that we live in times of crises shapes public opinion, political discourse, and academic debates. A review of posts published on Verfassungsblog between January and July 2025 reveals an average of 15 posts per month mentioning some kind of crisis. Crisis is certainly a catchword, and these are hard to resist. But the pervasiveness of this term can also tell us something about the kind of knowledge produced by legal scholarship.
Continue reading >>The Struggle Against Fossil Sovereignty
Over the course of decades, law has primarily functioned to enable and support the extraction, production, and consumption of fossil energy. As a result, planetary destruction remains not only awfully lucrative but also, in many cases, legally protected. The substantive impact of the ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate change will depend largely on how effectively it contributes to dismantling the stronghold of fossil sovereignty. That tangled web of fossil-friendly laws has often obstructed or blunted progressive climate politics or any other interference with unsustainable, fossil-driven profit-making.
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Rodina And Borisova V. Latvia And The Principle Of Self-Defending Democracy
The ECtHR, in its recent judgment on 10 July 2025 in the case of Rodina and Borisova v. Latvia, examined the applicants’ complaints regarding the refusals of domestic authorities to authorize the assemblies they wished to hold on 9 May and 23 September 2014. The ECtHR analyzed the freedom of peaceful assembly within the context of the principle of self-defending democracy. It reaffirmed that no one should be permitted to invoke the provisions of the ECHR to weaken or destroy the ideals and values of a democratic society.
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New Standards in Government Framework Litigation
The ICJ advisory opinion articulates very clearly States’ international obligations with respect to climate change. Its findings that States’ mitigation efforts must reflect their highest possible ambition, be capable of achieving the 1.5oC goal, and be fair and ambitious, determined through the application of CBDR-RC are momentous, as are its conclusions on remedies. Government framework litigation can serve to hold States to these obligations – just as plaintiffs have done for the past 10 years. Given the multitude of lawsuits pending against governments around the world.
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Sea-Level Rise Reaches The Hague
The advisory opinion rendered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on 23 July 2025 marks a pivotal moment in the articulation of States’ obligations concerning climate change. While based on broader rules and principles of international law, the opinion foregrounded the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as a key legal framework relevant to defining States’ climate obligations. As the ICJ itself stated, UNCLOS ‘forms part of the most directly relevant applicable law’ (para. 124). Thus, far from peripheral, the law of the sea emerged as a primary site for interpreting and enforcing States’ climate obligations under international law.
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Taxation Without Representation
What started as a trade war in 2018 – and a domestic policy aimed at recalibrating the U.S. trade policy – has quietly transformed into a tool of hidden taxation, enabling the U.S. executive branch, meaning the President of the United States, to raise revenue and dramatically influence fiscal policy without legislative consent or even minimal participation in the legislative process by Congress. This divergence from legal norms represents a constitutional rupture – what I call the rise of a shadow fiscal state: a parallel tax system designed and executed solely through executive discretion rather than transparency and congressional legislation.
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Behemoth v. The Dual State in the Gaza War
Fraenkel’s The Dual State (1941) and Neumann’s Behemoth (1942) offer two diverging accounts of the legal reality under National Socialism. The controversy between the two is important not only for the Gaza War, but also for the future of international humanitarian law writ large. The picture, according to which if lawyers had more power post-World War I, democracies in Europe would not have collapsed, affected both constitutional and international law. Yet, the claim that Weimar and the world could have been saved if only the law and lawyers had possessed more power is inaccurate. We are now reliving the consequences of this mistake in the Gaza War.
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Human Rights in the ICJ’s Climate Opinion
This summer has seen two major climate advisory opinions published – first from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and then from the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Both opinions address human rights law, embedding human rights in a broader overarching framework of international law that also includes international climate treaties and customary international law. But how do these opinions compare, and what room does the ICJ leave for continuing development of human rights standards by other relevant courts and treaty bodies?
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Mia Yamamoto
Her story is one of courage, sacrifice and solidarity with those pushed to society’s periphery: for decades, Mia Yamamoto hid her true self as a trans woman while fiercely advocating for the marginalized and uniting diverse groups to amplify unheard voices. Since birth, she has shared the fate of the incarcerated – a reality that continues to shape her to this day.
Continue reading >>A State Without Statehood
One year after New Caledonia was tormented by violent demonstrations, resulting in the deaths of 14 people and causing over 2 billion euros worth of damage, representatives of New Caledonia and the French State signed the Bougival Accord to bring an end to the situation and pave the way for peace. While Emmanuel Macron hails the Accord as “historic”, the overseas minister Manuel Valls celebrates it as “the best response to the fear”. However, a closer look at the agreement reveals that the Accord continues to entrench the French hold on the island and renders New Caledonian independence more elusive than ever.
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The Ruling and the Mirror
Much of the commentary that has emerged so far, in this symposium and in seemingly every other corner of the internet, focuses on the legal content of the opinion: the articulation of States’ obligations under international law, the rejection of the lex specialis argument, and the recognition of the right to a healthy environment, inter many alia. Yet beyond the legal reasoning and doctrinal outcomes lies something else. The opinion is also an act of identity performance: a way for the ICJ to speak about itself.
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Parteiverbotsverfahren in der öffentlichen Debatte
In der seit einigen Monaten kontrovers geführten Debatte um ein mögliches AfD-Verbot werden immer wieder Positionen mit rechtlichen Argumenten unterfüttert, die mit Blick auf das Verfassungsrecht kaum haltbar oder zumindest stark umstritten sind. Ihnen soll im Folgenden besondere Aufmerksamkeit gelten: als Mahnung an alle, die sich öffentlich zu diesem Thema äußern, dass die juristische Methodik auch dort nicht vernachlässigt werden darf, wo (gefühlte) politische Dringlichkeit auf normative Komplexität trifft.
Continue reading >>“We Were Just Cooperating!”
On June 12th 2025, Advocate General (AG) Ćapeta delivered her Opinion in Case WS v Frontex (C-746/23 P), concerning Frontex’ responsibility for violations of fundamental rights in joint return operations (JROs). The AG first exposes serious logical and legal flaws in the General Court’s approach before explaining why Frontex can be held directly accountable for fundamental rights violations when acting in cooperation with Member States; a question that was central to the applicants’ case but one that the General Court failed to address entirely.
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Who is In, Who is Out?
In our blog post “Access Denied”, we informed the research and Open Access (OA) community about Verfassungsblog’s removal from the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). With the publication of our appeal – which was ultimately rejected by DOAJ – we also announced our intention to initiate a broader discussion with DOAJ and the OA community about the directory’s admission and removal processes. As DOAJ is a central and established instrument in the Open Access movement, we believe this discussion is vital. To enable an open and constructive conversation, I will revisit the arguments from our appeal and connect them to broader issues of Open Access publishing, funding, and DOAJ’s role in this process. Since Matt Hodgkinson, Head of Editorial at DOAJ, has recently published DOAJ’s response, I will engage with some of his key points.
Continue reading >>What the Court Didn’t Say
The aim of this blog post is not to summarise the ICJ’s opinion or assess its overall relevance for international law. Instead, it draws attention to some of the issues that the ICJ did not address, or where it might have gone further, by providing more depth, precision, and guidance. By focusing on what the ICJ did not say, we can gain a better understanding of how it navigates its institutional constraints, political sensitivities, and the evolving terrain of international climate litigation.
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A Right Foundational to Humanity’s Existence
For the second time in a month, one of the world’s highest judicial authorities has issued an advisory opinion on the climate crisis that highlights the importance of the human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment. Echoing the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in its Advisory Opinion 32/25, on July 23, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) unanimously held that this right constitutes a binding norm of international law.
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The Legal Profession in the Executive Branch
The Trump administration is reshaping the roles of the U.S. legal profession and the civil service to use them as a tool to support the President’s political interests. This impacts an understudied and politically significant group of bureaucrats: government lawyers. They play a critical gatekeeper role in establishing legal principles that can both enable and hinder the systematic weakening of democratic institutions. The case of Brazil has a lot of important lessons to offer.
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Up Against It
The Grand Chamber ruled that Caster Semenya did not benefit from a fair hearing contrary to Article 6(1) European Convention on Human Rights. However, it did not extend Switzerland’s jurisdiction to her substantive complaints under Article 8 ECHR, taken alone or in conjunction with Article 14 ECHR, which go to the heart of her case. Although the GC was up against it in the current stormy political landscape of sex and gender, it could have gone further to protect fundamental rights.
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Consolidating Parliamentary Democracy in Mongolia
In May 2025, Mongolia witnessed peaceful youth-led protests in Sukhbaatar Square reacting to the Government’s handling of corruption and a perceived lack of transparency. The demonstration led to the Government’s resignation after a failed vote of confidence. Such governmental crises are not unprecedented in Mongolia, but the reaction to it is: the current political episode stands for an emerging constitutional culture in which civil society is reclaiming constitutional mechanisms for a more participatory and responsive democratic system.
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Bullying Universities
David Pozen at Columbia University calls Columbia University’s new agreement with the federal government “regulation by deal”. Of course, Columbia should have learned by now that making a deal does not mean that the pressure stops. Appeasing a bully only empowers the bully – and he will be back for more. Regulation by deal, precisely because it bypasses general lawmaking procedures, leaves open the possibility that any deal can be supplemented with even more demands in the future. It can provide no legal guarantees of security.
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Can The EU Levy Its Own Taxes?
The budgetary dance in the EU budgetary cycle always starts early and seems to follow similar patterns: the heads of state assess their positions, the press then divides them into camps (usually a frugal and an expansionist one), and the European Commission proposes measures that would expand the Union's budgetary autonomy. With the announcement of a new “Corporate Resource for Europe” (“CORE”), the Commission has relaunched an age-old debate: can the Union levy its own taxes, and if so, on what legal basis?
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International Rulings and the UK–Mauritius Chagos Agreement
On 22 May 2025, following negotiations that began in November 2022 and a joint statement of 3 October 2024 (to learn more, see Sebastian von Massow), the United Kingdom and Mauritius concluded an Agreement, stating that “Mauritius is sovereign over the Chagos Archipelago in its entirety, including Diego Garcia” (Article 1). The Chagos Agreement is not only a diplomatic achievement, but also a “contractual transposition” of the decisions of international courts and tribunals.
Continue reading >>A Single Paragraph’s Promise
One topic in the ICJ's advisory opinion on climate change has unfortunately garnered little attention: climate-induced displacement. The ICJ dedicates just one single, 105-word paragraph to this pressing issue. Still, this one seemingly modest paragraph may have profound implications for millions of people fleeing across borders due to climate change, potentially reshaping the legal landscape for those seeking protection and at least offering minimum guarantees against their removal to a place where they would be at risk.
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Pullbacks in the Channel
Last week, negotiations for a new UK–France agreement culminated in the announcement of a 'one in, one out' pilot scheme, under which the UK will return small boat arrivals to France while accepting asylum seekers selected from France who can demonstrate family ties in Britain. The agreement signals a sui generis evolution in European migration control. For the first time, rather than pushing asylum seekers back to third countries to avoid legal responsibilities under EU and international law, an EU Member State is directly preventing departures from its own territory.
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Enhanced Due Diligence
The IACtHR establishes that States have a series of obligations to ensure a healthy environment and climate, and prevent violations of human rights. To this end, the IACtHR develops the standard of enhanced due diligence as a binding framework for State action. This standard includes elements aimed at ensuring that the response to climate change is effective, fair, transparent, and evidence-based (para. 224). This blog post discusses the heightened due diligence standard, as clarified by the IACtHR, and outlines nine key elements of this standard.
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What We Lost in the Skies Above Tehran
The damage that Merz and Steinmeier have inflicted on both Germany’s international credibility and the order put in place with the founding of the United Nations will likewise be felt for decades to come. As things stand right now, as far as the jus contra bellum is concerned, there might not be much left to reconstruct when the community of international law scholars meets up in Berlin in September. In that, the realists may find reason to rejoice. They, too, will come to miss it once it’s gone.
Continue reading >>Corporations, Climate, and the Court
Corporations, especially those engaged in fossil fuel production, agriculture, construction, and transportation, play a significant role in the climate crisis and in its human rights impacts. It is thus of critical importance that the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)’s Advisory Opinion 32/25 (AO-32/25) not only directly addresses corporate climate and human rights impacts, but also provides some pathways forward on these persistent barriers to accountability. This blog discusses AO-32/25’s holdings and innovations as related to business and human rights and reflects on their broader legal implications.
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The ICJ’s Advisory Opinion on Climate Change
“An existential threat” – this is how the International Court of Justice (ICJ) characterized climate change in its long-awaited advisory opinion on the obligations of States with respect to climate change. In the most significant development in international climate law since the adoption of the Paris Agreement, the ICJ outlined numerous obligations that could significantly shape the contours of international environmental law and global climate governance.
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An Elusive Touchdown with a Political Football
On July 19, Congress voted to revoke funding from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting – something it has not done in the 60 years since its creation. In countries with strong public media traditions, this may seem astonishing: Why would Congress defund NPR and PBS after already having appropriated the money? And what does this mean for the First Amendment? To answer these questions, we must consider the peculiar history of public broadcasting in the United States.
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The Great Recall Movement
Confronted with lawmakers they themselves elected just eighteen months ago, Taiwanese citizens have creatively repurposed the antiquated mechanism of "recall" as a last-resort check on a runaway legislature. Sparked by a year of legislative overreach and erosion of constitutional checks, this unprecedented campaign reflects Taiwan's spirit of civic constitutionalism, and its determination to defend its democratic institutions.
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Respect for International Law in Gaza
Since October 2023, a group of eminent Israeli international law scholars has written numerous letters and memos expressing concerns over many aspects of the Gaza war. Given the importance of these documents both in doctrinal terms and in highlighting the work of these colleagues, we have asked to publish them. So far, only one of the letters has been officially published. Readers interested in more detail can access the full text of the respective documents, which are hyperlinked and archived on Verfassungsblog.
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Another Step in the Anti-Abortion Agenda
Trump’s recently passed “One Big, Beautiful Bill” bars Medicaid reimbursements to Planned Parenthood for one year. The provision is now temporarily blocked after Planned Parenthood filed suit. But it builds on, and must be read against, the backdrop of Medina v. Planned Parenthood, a recent and disastrous Supreme Court ruling initiated by South Carolina. The case starkly illustrates the Court’s continued alignment with an anti-abortion agenda advanced through state governments and forms part of a broader assault on civil rights. Not least, its entanglement with Medicaid signals a deeper campaign against the poor and access to healthcare.
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The Demise of Congress
Last week, Congress passed a bill permitting deep cuts to foreign aid and public broadcasting programs – just days after enacting what Donald Trump hailed as the “Big Beautiful Bill,” widely seen as a legislative disaster. Congress is increasingly surrendering its constitutional power of the purse and, with it, its institutional identity in relation to the presidency. Its collapse in favor of pure partisanship signals the breakdown of the system of checks and balances at the heart of the U.S. Constitution.
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Sweden, Sex Work, Screens
Sweden takes its sex work ban online — but at what cost? Criminalising digital intimacy clashes with EU rights and consensus. The new law risks punishing autonomy without protecting anyone. From demand to overreach: privacy in the digital age is at stake. Copying offline laws into online spaces erodes digital freedoms.
Continue reading >>Protecting Rights in the Anthropocene
On July 3, 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) issued its long-awaited Advisory Opinion No. 32 (AO-32/25) on the “Climate Emergency and Human Rights”. With its opinion, the IACtHR became the first human rights monitoring body to recognize that a healthy climate is an autonomous and justiciable human right. This blog post traces the emergence of this new right within the Inter-American Human Rights System (IAHRS) and highlights its most transformative elements for theory and practice.
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The EU’s New Climate Targets and the Return of Flexibility
Early in July, the European Commission then released its proposal for a new climate target. The Commission hails the new targets as “ambitious”. But the proposal clearly bows to concerns about geopolitical competition. Greater flexibilities shall square the circle between climate ambition and competitiveness concerns. The idea has a telling history.
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Stopping the Davids, Shielding the Goliaths
In Barbara v. Trump, an individual federal district court judge stopped the Administration’s birthright citizenship executive order nationwide. Just when the Supreme Court said this was not allowed in Trump v. CASA, a New Hampshire judge ordered universal relief, this time through a class action. There is a big difference between a nationwide injunction that benefits non-parties and a class action that benefits class members. But what they have in common is that they both empower the “little guy” to enforce the rule of law. The Supreme Court has eliminated the former and is now trying to kneecap the latter.
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Decriminalising Abortion in England and Wales
On 17 June 2025, British MPs took an important step in decriminalising abortion against a backdrop of rising prosecutions for "later" abortion. Once the amended Crime and Policing Bill becomes law, people who voluntarily end their own pregnancies will be exempt from criminalisation. But, unless a further amendment is made, those good faith actors who provide abortion, or support others in getting access, remain at risk of criminal investigation. Five aspects of the recent legal changes are worth emphasising as lessons for a strategic perspective on defending, and even expanding, reproductive freedom.
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Addressing Accountability in the IACtHR’s Advisory Opinion
With AO-32/25, the IACtHR has delivered a historic and bold affirmation that climate change is not only an environmental emergency but also a profound human rights crisis, one that requires both prevention and reparation. By articulating States’ duties to provide remedies, the IACtHR has moved the conversation to one of legal accountability and remediation.
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Against Authoritarian Determinism
A tempting but corrosive thought about Israeli politics – and about many other places – is that we have already embarked on a one-way road to authoritarianism. This “authoritarian determinism”, sometimes presented as a kind of seasoned realism, assumes that political trajectories continue unidirectionally. There is a world of difference between the many political contexts in which authoritarianism seems to be on the rise. And yet, a common question seems to be asked: in the face of authoritarian determinism, what can be saved of the democratic process? Until when does it make sense to hold on?
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Suspension of EU Association Agreements Does Not Require Unanimity
In its meeting on 15 July 2025, the Council of the EU failed to adopt concrete measures vis-à-vis Israel, limiting itself to an “exchange of views on an inventory of possible follow-up measures”. This hesitant approach stands in contrast to clear indications that Israel is in breach of its human rights obligations under Article 2 of the EU-Israel Association Agreement (AA), and to the EU’s own obligation to work towards consolidating human rights and the principles of public international law pursuant to Article 21 TEU. While a suspension of the entire AA was never really foreseeable, an important question relates to the voting threshold within the Council that would apply to such a decision relating to the AA.
Continue reading >>Reproductive Rights and the Climate Crisis
On July 3, 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) published its long-awaited Advisory Opinion 32/25 (AO-32/25). The Opinion responds to a 2023 request from Colombia and Chile, asking the IACtHR to clarify the scope of States’ obligations to address the climate emergency under international human rights law. While the decision marks a significant step toward recognizing the climate crisis as a human rights issue, this blog post aims to shed light on a critical omission in the IACtHR’s reasoning: the impact of environmental degradation and the climate emergency on sexual and reproductive health and rights.
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Progressives and the Supreme Court
The Case for Disengagement Is Misguided
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Amerikas Progressive und der Supreme Court
Warum der Ruf nach Rückzug ein Irrweg ist
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The Bloom of Nature’s Rights
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (IACtHR) advisory opinion on human rights and the climate emergency (AO-32/25) addresses numerous dimensions of the climate crisis, setting an important precedent for the protection of our planet. This post focuses on one particularly significant development: the IACtHR’s recognition of Nature as a subject of rights. We argue that the IACtHR’s pronouncements on this subject mark the advent of an ecocentric paradigm whose implications are likely to be far-reaching and transformative.
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Quantifying Fair Share Carbon Budgets
An obligation to quantify each country’s fair share of the remaining global carbon budget associated with limiting global heating to 1.5°C flows from the judgment in KlimaSeniorinnen. While there will naturally be debate about what represents a country’s fair share – the EU’s independent advisory body ESAB recently considered a range of fair share principles and concluded that the EU’s fair share has already been used up under many of these – the obligation to quantify fair share budgets should, in our view, be the subject of a reduced margin of appreciation consistent with KlimaSeniorinnen.
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Copyright, AI, and the Future of Internet Search before the CJEU
With Like Company v Google, the first groundbreaking AI copyright case is now headed to the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). In this case, a Hungarian press publisher challenges Google and its Gemini chatbot for reproducing and communicating its editorial content without authorisation. The Court’s decision will establish the legal framework for AI’s relationship with copyright and press publishers’ rights across the EU. It will potentially reshape how generative AI systems can or cannot lawfully access, process and reproduce journalistic and other protected content. This may even fundamentally affect the economic and technical architecture of future AI development.
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A Nod, Not a Leap
This post focuses on one notable aspect of AO-32/25 that has not received attention in other commentary–the IACtHR’s engagement with gender issues. We find that the IACtHR has taken an important step forward, both in recognizing gender as a key determinant of climate vulnerability and in identifying gender-responsive obligations on States. However, the IACtHR’s comments in this regard remain general and often gestural. The obligations identified are limited, narrow, and many relate to data gathering rather than substantial action.
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The GPAI Code of Practice
On 10 July 2025, the European Commission published the final version of its Code of Practice for General-Purpose AI (GPAI) – a voluntary rulebook developed by a group of independent experts and more than 1,400 stakeholders from industry, academia, civil society, and rightsholders. The Code is meant to prepare providers for what’s ahead: it offers a straightforward way to start complying with future obligations under the AI Act. Its success will ultimately depend on whether it manages to reduce compliance burdens and provide legal certainty. Even if not universally adopted, it could still serve as a regulatory benchmark under the AI Act.
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Jus Cogens and the Climate Crisis
While there are many aspects of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)’s Advisory Opinion 32/25 (AO-32/25) that are new and groundbreaking, the inclusion of a reflection on jus cogens might have surprised some observers. The legal consequences of the recognition as jus cogens of the obligation not to create irreversible damage to the climate and the global environment are profound. Treaties violating the norm are void, customary international law rules cannot exist, nor does the persistent objector rule apply.
Continue reading >>Independence as a Desideratum
A recent report claiming that EU tech regulation has entered the ongoing trade negotiations with the U.S. has sparked fears that enforcement of the Digital Services Act (DSA) might be halted altogether. Although the DSA only came into full effect in February 2024, the European Commission’s subsequent enforcement has already showcased conflicts regarding its role as an autonomous political and administrative enforcement body. Considering the potential impact of the DSA on online communication, the Commission’s current role in DSA enforcement raises serious concerns. This calls for a search for alternative models of DSA enforcement. Three options present themselves.
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The Right to a Healthy Environment as a Catalyst for Urgent and Ambitious Climate Action at the IACtHR
The right to a healthy environment is at the heart of the landmark Advisory Opinion 32/25 (AO-32/25) on the climate emergency from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). AO-32/25 marks the clearest ruling to date from an international court on the urgency of transformative changes to address the existential threat of the planetary environmental emergency caused by human activities.
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The End of an (Unlawful) Era
On June 17th, the Danish Supreme Court delivered an important judgement concerning the principle of non-penalization of refugees, ending decades of unlawful prosecutorial practices. A closer reading points to longstanding deficiencies in informing asylum seekers of their rights during the procedure. Moreover, questions remain regarding the interpretation of Article 31 for beneficiaries of subsidiary protection.
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Turkey’s Gerontocratic Constitutional Moment
In less than a year, Turkish politics has undergone a profound realignment. It began in October 2024 with a remarkable speech by Devlet Bahçeli, leader of the far-right Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) and President Erdoğan’s chief coalition partner. In one of the most cryptic U-turns of his career, Bahçeli—long a hardliner on the Kurdish question—proposed reopening the long-frozen peace process with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), the separatist armed group that has waged a decades-long insurgency against the Turkish state. In short, the tectonic plates of Turkish politics are shifting, and at the center of this transition stands a cast of aging men, each well past seventy.
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Starlink, the Cloud, and Corporate Dependency
The Trump Administration has repeatedly pushed for the adoption or licensing of Elon Musk’s satellite company Starlink in trade negotiations. But as Musk’s strategic use of his satellite service reveals, corporate control over critical infrastructure inevitably translates into political power. Power that companies may wield in alignment with, or in opposition to, state interests. The solution, however, may not lie in stronger state oversight alone, but in democratizing corporations themselves.
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Assets Without Alibi
Păcurar is yet another version of the familiar cat-and-mouse game between anticorruption agencies and corrupt public officials: some public officials quietly amass real estate, luxury cars, financial investments, or cash, and – once confronted by anticorruption agencies to explain the difference from their declared legal income – rely on whimsical excuses. On 24 June 2025, the ECtHR held that wealth may be taken away if public officials cannot explain that very difference. This ruling completes the ECtHR’s endorsement of civil law instruments in the fight against corruption by fully disconnecting confiscation from any link to a crime.
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Petro’s Schmittian Turn
On 11 June 2025, Colombian President Gustavo Petro issued a decree calling a national popular consultation on a package of long-stalled social reforms. The decree came after the Senate had explicitly rejected his formal request to hold such a vote – approval that is constitutionally required under Article 104 of the Constitution. This reveals something deeper and more dangerous: an increasingly Schmittian conception of democratic power, in which the president, claiming to represent a unified people, overrides institutional checks in the name of higher constitutional fidelity.
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On the “Whims of Foreign Courts”
Last week, the UK High Court decided that the UK can continue to issue licences for F-35 components that go into a pool of spare parts which Israel can use on its existing F-35 jets. The finding by the High Court that the UK cannot exclude Israel as an end user for UK manufactured components because “the only way for the UK to ensure that its components do not reach Israel is for it to suspend all exports into the F-35 programme” raises pertinent questions with regard to the UK's compliance with the Arms Trade Treaty and other key provisions of international law.
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Beyond the Fog of War
Superlatives are often overused - but in the case of the Grand Chamber judgment in Ukraine, The Netherlands v Russia, delivered on 9 July 2025, they are not only justified but arguably inadequate. This case stands out as one of the most consequential and complex in the history of the European Court of Human Rights. It addresses systemic human rights violations committed in the context of an ongoing international armed conflict and during a prolonged period of occupation.
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The Catalan Amnesty in the Spanish Constitutional Court
On 26 June 2025, the Spanish Constitutional Court ruled that the Amnesty Act “for the Institutional, Political and Social Normalization in Catalonia” is constitutional. The decision appears to reflect a pragmatic rather than a principled understanding of the amnesty – in other words, it treats the amnesty as an instrument to normalise the political situation in Catalonia rather than a measure for redressing possible rights violations resulting from the criminal convictions.
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The NGO’s Guide to Authoritarianism
It appears that whenever expert civil society organizations release a legal analysis of draft laws that restrict fundamental rights and freedoms, authoritarian governments learn from their mistakes and avoid them in the next round. One could witness such a situation when the Foreign Agents Registration Bill was introduced in the Slovak parliament last spring, and the public watchdog and advocacy organization VIA IURIS tried to stand against this legislation. In one year, the Slovak parliament considered three versions of the Bill, with each version making it more challenging to fight in court.
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Spanish Judges on Strike
“Save the rule of Law in Spain”, read a banner held by a number of unidentified judges who were demonstrating before the premises of the Spanish Supreme Court, a couple of days ago in Madrid. But save it – from whom? The demonstrators would no doubt reply: from Pedro Sánchez and his government, which has undertaken the first serious reform of the Spanish judiciary since the transition to democracy. But the reform is not the only reason why the Spanish judges have been on strike.
Continue reading >>The Public in Public Law
Post-Constitutional Depression and How to Overcome It
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Das Öffentliche im Öffentlichen Recht
Post-verfassungsstaatliche Depression und wie man sie überwindet
Continue reading >>The Finish Line of Caster Semenya’s Judicial Marathon
Caster Semenya was wronged, and Switzerland – due to the inaction of the Swiss Federal Supreme Court (SFSC) – was held responsible by the Grand Chamber (GC) of the ECtHR. This conclusion to a long judicial marathon is an important vindication for an athlete who saw her career destroyed by a process that violated her right to a fair hearing. The case will be remembered as a significant landmark that will affect the field of transnational sports law and governance for years to come.
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Laboratories of Authoritarianism
In Mahmoud v. Taylor, the U.S. Supreme Court expanded the 1st Amendment Free Exercise Clause to grant conservative religious parents a constitutional right to remove their children from any classroom where a teacher includes LGBTQAI+ people in the curriculum. In effect, the Court has allowed public schools to discourage mutual tolerance, parents to opt out of Equal Protection, and fringe legal strategists to continue to use children’s constitutional rights as a test case for authoritarianism. In doing so, the erosion of children’s rights becomes the foundation upon which other rights are eroded.
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Vet Bills and the EU Charter
Over the past decade, concerns about rising veterinary costs and their impact on animal welfare have sparked growing debate across Europe and North America. In the EU, veterinary pricing is largely unregulated, leading to significant variation in costs and transparency across Member States – prompting scrutiny from competition authorities in countries like the UK, the Netherlands, and Sweden. If Charter rights, particularly Article 37 on sustainability, are to carry real weight in relation to animals, the current state of the veterinary market in Europe warrants closer examination.
Continue reading >>Reforming the GDPR
After a surge of new digital legislation over the past two years, the European Commission appears to have no intention of easing its pace in reshaping Europe’s regulatory landscape. This includes proposals to reform the GDPR. Regulatory reforms should, however, focus on strengthening enforcement and fixing the structural problems of the GDPR, rather than merely simplifying and deregulating it.
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A Differentiated Path Forward
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (IACtHR) Advisory Opinion OC-32/25 on the “Climate Emergency and Human Rights” represents a transformative moment in international legal doctrine on climate-induced displacement and shows why the IACtHR’s conclusions constitute not merely an incremental development, but a fundamental reorientation of the human rights law approach to one of the most pressing challenges of our time.
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Silencing Children’s Rights
The U.S. Supreme Court decided Mahmoud v. Taylor on June 27, 2025. In doing so, it dramatically expanded parental rights over students and education without concern for the rights of children or consideration of pedagogy and curriculum. Instead of addressing the plurality of views around sexual orientation and gender, the Court indirectly, but unsubtly, installs a traditional values framework that imposes norms of heterosexuality, religious fundamentalism and parental micromanagement of curriculum.
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Judicial Acquiescence to Presidential Immigration
Mahmoud Khalil, Kilmar Ábrego García, and Rumeysa Ozturk are just a few of the people against whom the second Trump Administration has openly engaged in alarming forms of immigration enforcement. There is an underappreciated way in which the Supreme Court has defanged the judiciary’s systemic ability to confront the executive branch’s illegal immigration behavior: It has failed to draw on U.S. administrative law. In doing so, it has diminished a vital structural judicial check on presidential power – one that lower courts, and even a future Supreme Court, may find increasingly difficult to deploy.
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Von der Leyen Faces the Vote
On July 10, 2025, the European Parliament votes on a motion of censure against Commission President Ursula von der Leyen and her entire College of Commissioners. The pending vote against von der Leyen provides a compelling case study for examining the evolving role of the censure motion as both a legal instrument of accountability and a political tool for inter-institutional dialogue. While the motion's immediate prospects for success remain minimal, its deployment illuminates fundamental questions about democratic legitimacy, institutional loyalty, and the constitutional evolution of EU governance structures towards a post-Lisbon parliamentary democracy’s logic.
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A Blueprint for Rights-Based Climate Action
On July 3, 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) issued Advisory Opinion No. 32—the most important and progressive document yet released by an international court on the climate crisis. The IACtHR’s findings are as comprehensive as they are groundbreaking, spanning areas from procedural requirements for mitigation measures to the protection of environmental defenders. This post launches a blog symposium on the advisory opinion and discusses ten key takeaways, chosen to illustrate the opinion’s legal and practical significance.
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The Liberal Litigation Trap
The progressive legal movement faces a harsh reality: its reliance on federal courts has become a strategic liability in an era of conservative judicial dominance. Rather than continue on its current path or abandon impact litigation entirely, liberal cause lawyers should embrace “resistance through restraint” – tactically starving conservative appellate courts of cases while redirecting their energy toward democratic organizing, state-level advocacy, and defensive litigation.
Continue reading >>Trump’s Final Frontier?
Trump nominated Emil Bove III, a former attorney of his, to the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. The Bove nomination signals a turn away from the Federalist Society, the signature institution of the conservative legal movement. With it, the radical forces of the New Right movement are now making inroads into the inherently conservative judiciary. This is a development that could be a key step in consolidating Trump's power.
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A Legal Scalpel Instead of an Axe
Hungary appears to be assuming the role of a Trojan horse in the European Union, advancing the interests of foreign powers. Of particular concern is Hungary’s conduct in the field of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, especially in light of its obstruction of EU sanctions against Russia. Thus far, the EU’s conventional instruments have proven insufficient in curbing Hungary’s veto strategy. For this reason, I propose a path that is both legally feasible and politically realistic: a reinterpretation of Article 7 TEU that would allow for a targeted use of the instrument.
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An Ecofeminist Approach to EU Biodiversity Law
This blog post aims at briefly addressing the issue of hunting as it is regulated in EU biodiversity law using legal ecofeminism as method of analysis. It starts from a reflection on ecofeminism as related to hunting, then argues that EU law, including the EU Charter is inherently anthropocentric, and highlights the ambiguities of EU biodiversity law. By referring to a judgment rendered by the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) on the conservation of wolves in 2019, this post encourages an ecofeminist legal reading of EU biodiversity law. E
Continue reading >>Das Gesetz der Gesetzlosigkeit
Zur letzten Sitzungsperiode des US Supreme Courts
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The “Best Available Science”
Two recent fisheries disputes reveal that the “best available science” standard is neither singular nor straightforward. Instead, science emerges as contested terrain, shaped by power, uncertainty, and competing truths. These cases could have important implications for the future application of the EU’s Charter of Fundamental Rights and its growing relevance for biodiversity and animal protection.
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The Limits of Limiting Democracy
The intellectual and institutional architectures built around democracy are under pressure – and evolving: Germany reformed its fiscal constitution in March, Europe’s Stability and Growth Pact is undergoing a stress test, and in the United States, the White House is questioning the independence of monetary policy. Historically, democracy has an ambivalent reputation: Plato described it as both the freest and the most unstable of governments. But how far and in what ways can democracy be limited before it loses its democratic nature?
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The Antagonistic Unity of Copyright and Freedom of the Arts
On 17 June 2025, Advocate General Emiliou delivered his opinion in the second referral of the German Federal Court of Justice (BGH) to the CJEU in the case “Pelham” – also known as “Metall auf Metall” (Case C-590/23). He defines “pastiche” – currently the most controversial concept of European copyright law – and makes a fundamental statement on EU copyright law and its relationship to freedom of the arts as guaranteed by Art. 13 CFR.The InfoSoc Directive, which is at the heart of EU copyright law, is too restrictive with regard to the artistic use of copyright-protected works and therefore not compatible with the Charter’s freedom of the arts. Emiliou’s opinion is a breakthrough. It grounds copyright in freedom of the arts and paves the way for a new perspective on the relationship between copyright and artistic freedom.
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Constitutional Awakening of Values
On 5 June 2025, AG Ćapeta delivered her opinion in case C-769/22, raising a pivotal question for the EU’s constitutional future: Can Article 2 TEU serve as a standalone provision in infringement proceedings? While the issue has sparked debate – including on this blog – this post defends the Opinion as a constitutionally coherent and necessary step to safeguard the Union’s foundational values. It argues that AG Ćapeta’s approach is firmly rooted in existing case law and offers a compelling legal framework to address democratic backsliding. The post focuses on her use of the “good society” concept and the proposed “negation of values” test, examining their normative grounding and practical significance within EU law.
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Rights for Non-Humans in EU Law
The recognition of animals and nature as potential rights holders has long been a controversial proposition within European legal discourse. However, we believe that the EU legal order is more hospitable to such recognition than one might expect. In a recent article, we argued for a rights-based reinterpretation of EU animal welfare and environmental protection laws. EU constitutional and secondary laws can be construed as entailing legal rights for non-human entities – even if these rights are not explicit the texts. We consider how the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and other EU legal acts may support a post-anthropocentric vision of Union law.
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The Constitution’s Midnight
Resolving some legal issues requires drawing a line through a gray area. Others can be resolved without having to draw a line, in recognition of an old insight: that there is a dawn and a dusk does not mean there is no noon or no midnight. Whether the President had power under the Constitution to attack Iran without congressional approval is an issue that falls in the latter category, within the Constitution’s midnight: wherever a line might be drawn in harder cases, this is not one of them.
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Defining Climate Justice in the African Human Rights System
On 2 May 2025, the Pan African Lawyers Union – in collaboration with the African Climate Platform, the Environmental Lawyers Collective for Africa, Natural Justice, and resilient40 – submitted a request to the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights for an advisory opinion on States’ obligations in relation to climate change. As the climate crisis intensifies across the continent, exacerbating inequality, displacing communities, and threatening ecological systems, the need for principled, coherent, and rights-based legal guidance has never been greater. In addressing this request, the Court has the chance not only to align with emerging global jurisprudence but to contribute a distinctly African vision of climate justice.
Continue reading >>Animals and the EU Charter
The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights remains silent on animal rights, even as a growing number of constitutions worldwide now explicitly protect animals. While the EU already recognises animals as sentient beings under Article 13 TFEU, this recognition has yet to translate into meaningful constitutional safeguards. Embedding animal welfare into the Charter would align the Union with global developments and help move its integration project beyond an overly anthropocentric model.
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A Wolf’s Right to the Surface of the Earth
The European Union recently changed the legal status of the wolf from “strictly protected” to “protected”. In this contribution, I advocate a different response to the problem that wolves prey on animals kept by humans: the further development of the European ecological network called Natura 2000. The premise of my argument, based on animal rights theory and Kant’s philosophy of law, is that wolves have the right to be on Earth. In the past, humans have tried to eradicate wolves, which is a clear violation of this right. I argue that this historical injustice generates the duty to restore the habitats and natural infrastructure used by wolves.
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Externalising Migration Control
On 20th of May 2025, the European Court of Human Rights declared the case of S.S. and others v Italy inadmissible under Art.1 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The decision marks a missed opportunity. Instead of addressing the question of functional jurisdiction in the context of externalised migration control, the Court found that Italy does not enjoy extraterritorial jurisdiction over a group of irregular migrants whose ship was wrecked on the high seas near the Libyan coast. The ruling is another illustration of how externalised border control and “pull-back” policies are becoming normalised in Europe.
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Academic Freedom Mugged
The forced resignation of James Ryan from the presidency of the University of Virginia by pressure from a politically motivated U.S. Department of Justice, abetted by his opponents within the school, deals a dangerous blow to institutional academic freedom both at UVA and at every public university. Of course, universities must abide by federal civil rights laws as interpreted by courts. But Ryan’s antagonists pursue a radical reorientation of higher education away from most forms of increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students.
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A Child’s Right to Non-Anthropocentric Education
The European Charter on Fundamental Human Rights is not concerned about animal rights. Although the Charter is silent about animals, it is possible to connect certain human rights it enshrines to animals in a manner that can foment animal rights. The protection of a healthy environment in Article 37 is an obvious choice. A lesser theorized human right in the Charter similarly has considerable potential to benefit animals: the right to education under Article 14.
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The Legal Form of Animals in Global Value Chain Law
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union makes no mention of animals—a silence that reflects a broader pattern across EU law, including in Global Value Chain Law (GVC Law), which governs the legal infrastructures of global economic activity. Animals hold no particular legal status in this domain, revealing striking parallels in how law has historically shaped and domesticated both human and animal life. Rethinking this shared legal trajectory sheds new light on the social condition underpinning the fundamental values of EU law.
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Cecilia Medina Quiroga
Lawyer, judge, professor, UN legal expert, researcher – forced to start over repeatedly, Dr. Cecilia Medina Quiroga has earned herself nearly every title you could think of in the field of law. Above all, she is a specialist in international human rights law who truly believes that women’s rights can be advanced through the application of human rights. Her perspective has contributed to the development of women’s rights protection, notably in the Inter-American Court for Human Rights’ historic “Cotton Field Femicide” case over which she presided.
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A European Charter of Fundamental Human Obligations
The effort to anchor animal rights in the European Charter of Fundamental Rights has gained relevance in light of the widespread commodification of animals within the EU’s market-driven integration process. While commendable in principle, incorporating animal rights into the Charter risks serving a largely symbolic function if it diverts attention from the more pressing task of reconfiguring what I take to be the six foundational institutions of private law in capitalist political economy: property, contract, corporation, tort, labor, and consumption. These institutions reinforce the binary between the human subject and the other-than-human object, a division that enables the commodification of non-human beings.
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Animal Law Jurisprudence in the EU and Beyond
Animals have largely been left out in EU law scholarship and environmental law studies. The role of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights has not been discussed to any greater extent. In this symposium, we discuss the pros and cons of the EU Charter for securing sufficient animal protection in the Member States. More specifically, the contributions in this symposium explore a number of questions such as that of the legal standing of animals and animal rights in the context of the EU, and reflecting on the relationship between animal rights and the EU.
Continue reading >>In the End… Who Cares?
On 3 June 2025, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Justice delivered its judgment on the Kinsa-Case. At the core of the matter were the criminal charges of a third-country national for the facilitation of unauthorized entry of two minors in the territory of an EU Member State. With this ruling, the Court takes an important step towards the de-criminalization of care for migrant children who are seeking international protection. However, the Grand Chamber’s reasoning offers limited considerations on the relevant links between “actual care”, humanitarian assistance, and migrant children’s rights. This shortcoming may ultimately curb protection standards of migrant children in future cases
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U.S. Attacks on Iran
Israel and the United States attacked Iran in mid-June 2025 with the aim of ending its nuclear program. Iran counter-attacked. While some world leaders justified what Israel and the U.S. were doing, they did so in line with political deterrence theory, not the plain terms of the United Nations Charter. The lawful use of force in self-defense depends on an armed attack occurring. Concerns over nuclear weapons are to be resolved through treaties and negotiations. Honoring deterrence theory over the law is undermining the surest path to peace.
Continue reading >>The Failures of the NATO Summit and the Future of Peace
How European Leaders’ Obsequiousness Threatens Europe’s Security and Undermines International Law
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Das Versagen des NATO-Gipfels und die Zukunft des Friedens
Warum die Unterwürfigkeit Europas seine Sicherheit und das Völkerrecht untergräbt
Continue reading >>Private Wealth, Public Doubt
Public officials having to disclose their private wealth is a powerful anti-corruption tool that led to the imprisonment or dismissal of hundreds of corrupt public officials across Europe. In Romania, this included ministers and a Parliamentary President. Despite this success, the Romanian Constitutional Court now substantially undermined the effectiveness of asset declarations: it declared the online publication of declarations unconstitutional and invalidated the provision on declaring wealth of adult family members of public officials. There are two reasons for other governance-reforming countries not to follow this case law.
Continue reading >>Managing Migration the Italian Way II
Eight months after first exploring the legal contours of the “innovative” Italy-Albania Protocol and its temporary suspension following the Court of Rome’s refusal to validate the detention of the first group of asylum applicants transferred to Albania, this post turns to a new and potentially game-changing development: a preliminary reference to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), submitted by the Italian Court of Cassation on 20 June 2025. The referral raises doubts about the compatibility of the scheme with both the Return Directive (RD) and the Asylum Procedures Directive (APD). This move adds fresh legal uncertainty to a deal already under intense scrutiny and could significantly impact its implementation.
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The European Union’s Fantastical Constitution
Recently, von Bogdandy and Spieker decided to boldly go where not even they had dared to go before. To overcome the possible Hungarian veto on prolonging EU sanctions against Russia, they propose that the explicit requirement in Article 31(1) TEU for such decisions to be taken by the Council acting unanimously should be overcome on the basis of Article 2 TEU. In their view, a Hungarian veto against further sanctions would violate the value of solidarity and the Hungarian vote should therefore not count. We argue that this would launch us into a whole new, and in our view, dangerous galaxy.
Continue reading >>Rethinking Transitional Justice in Sudan
The war that has plagued Sudan since 15 April 2023 is accompanied by massive violations and abuses of international humanitarian law and international human rights law. Impunity with the persistence, and indeed rise, of alleged perpetrators is a key dimension of the current war. This is a fundamental challenge to its social fabric, state integrity and regional stability. As such, Sudan’s most recent transition process underlines how transitional justice can fail – and what future efforts must learn.
Continue reading >>The Return of Golden Shares and Global Politics
The Trump Administration just announced that the Japanese steel giant Nippon Steel has granted it a powerful “golden share” in U.S. Steel as a condition for its acquisition of this major US-American steel manufacturer. While the EU has largely constrained the use of such instruments under internal market law, the US now appears willing to deploy them as symbols of industrial revival and national strength. In its response to the increasing global (geo)economic competition, the EU and its member states should resist this trend and instead refine targeted FDI screening mechanisms to reconcile national security with internal market integrity.
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The Legacy of Kinsa
The CJEU’s judgment in Kinsa marks a rare rights-based correction to the EU’s punitive approach to migration. Prompted by a case from Italy, the Court confronts the criminalisation of those who cross borders caring for children. Rather than deferring to enforcement rationales, it centres fundamental rights and draws clear constitutional limits. The ruling opens a path to challenge overbroad criminalisation not just retrospectively, but at the level of legal design. In the shadow of ongoing EU reform efforts, Kinsa signals a shift: from border control to proportionality scrutiny.
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Nur gelbes Licht?
Das Bundesverwaltungsgericht hat das Verbot von „Compact“ nun auch im Hauptsacheverfahren aufgehoben. Auch wenn sich die Compact GmbH mit dem „Remigrationskonzept“ identifiziere, das gegen die Menschenwürde und das Demokratieprinzip verstoße, sei die Vereinigung nicht ausreichend von verfassungswidrigen Äußerungen und Aktivitäten geprägt. Für den zukünftigen Umgang mit Medienverboten ist vor allem interessant: Das Gericht bleibt zwar im Grundsatz bei seiner Position, dass das Vereinsrecht auch auf faktische Medienverbote anwendbar ist. Doch es deutet eine bedeutsame Grenze dieses Grundsatzes an.
Continue reading >>Energy Sanctions Reloaded
The European Commission proposed a ban on Russian gas imports based on Article 207 TFEU – a legal basis related to the EU’s Common Commercial Policy, rather than the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Although the policy domains of trade and sanctions often overlap in practice, the new proposal seems to overlook that the EU maintains a distinct legal framework for imposing sanctions. If the ban is ultimately enacted under Article 207 TFEU, there is a risk that one or more Member States opposing these new sanctions against Russia will challenge it on the grounds that this EU Regulation is based on the wrong legal basis.
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The Future of International Criminal Law is Domestic
Domestic courts are increasingly stepping in where international institutions falter, becoming key enforcers of international criminal law. The conviction of Syrian doctor Alaa M. in Germany exemplifies the potential of universal jurisdiction to deliver justice beyond borders. While the ICC remains blocked in the Syria situation, national trials offer credible, survivor-driven accountability. Rather than being a fallback, domestic prosecutions are emerging as a central pillar of international criminal justice.
Continue reading >>From Erosion to Evisceration
Last week, the Supreme Court decided the case United States v. Skrmetti. As Ryan Thoreson has argued on this blog, the Court’s opinion rolls back existing understandings of sex discrimination in ways that will likely play out in future cases. Building on that insight, I examine how the Court narrows what counts as sex discrimination and strips the concept of stereotypes of its constitutional force. The most troubling aspects of the decision, however, appear in concurrences written by the ultraconservative members of the Court, which confine the reach of equal protection to formal legal classifications alone.
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The Erosion of Equal Protection
In United States v. Skrmetti, the U.S. Supreme Court voted 6-3 along ideological lines to uphold a Tennessee law banning gender-affirming care for minors, reaching that conclusion by construing equal protection jurisprudence in regressive ways. The majority reasoned that the law not only did not discriminate on the basis of sex, but did not discriminate on the basis of transgender status either. This post explains how the Skrmetti decision threatens to narrow the scope of constitutional equality protections in the United States, why it is dangerous for the equality claims of women and lesbian, gay, and bisexual people, and why it is likely to be so damaging for transgender people targeted by state and federal lawmakers in recent years.
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Haunted by Text
Slovak PM Fico renewed his attempts to amend Slovakia’s Constitution. The most controversial provisions are a “national identity safeguard” limiting the effect of international and supranational law, and a definition of sex as strictly binary. After securing backing from some opposition members, his cabinet has submitted the amendment to parliament for debate and a vote. While public mobilisation against the proposed amendment proposal is important, legal scholars and NGOs should avoid using language that might reinforce the perception that the formally powerful Constitutional Court lacks the authority to strike down or reinterpret such changes in line with constitutional values.
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“Wavering Between Hope and Despair”
Reflections From Within German International Law Scholarship
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„Schwanken zwischen Hoffnung und Verzweiflung“
Innenansichten aus der deutschen Völkerrechtslehre
Continue reading >>Neither Soil, Nor Blood, Nor Money
Russian oligarchs in Malta, descendants of Italians in South America, and Mexicans crossing into the US make unlikely characters for a common story. Yet over the first half of 2025, the ability of each of these groups to acquire or transmit citizenship status has been under scrutiny, signalling a shared preoccupation with ensuring that citizenship reflects “authentic” bonds and is not acquired instrumentally. In the struggle to define these “authentic” bonds each intervention strikes at the heart of some well-known citizenship tenet – the link to soil, blood, or money – without offering a clear alternative. The resulting void calls for a reflection on the principles that ought to inform rules on citizenship attribution.
Continue reading >>Democracy Washing
The Israeli Supreme Court has recently adopted a highly activist approach in rulings that claim to strengthen the structural foundations of democracy, while neglecting its role in protecting the basic human rights of Palestinians. The stark contrast between the Court’s handling of cases involving Palestinians detained incommunicado and its swift intervention in the dismissal of the Shin Bet Director reflects a deeper pattern in the Court’s recent jurisprudence, one that can be described as “democracy washing”.
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Rethinking Article 2 TEU
The recent Opinion of Advocate General (AG) Ćapeta in Case C 769/22 European Commission v Hungary marks a key moment in the evolving case law on Article 2 TEU. The case concerns Hungary’s controversial 2021 legislation restricting access to content portraying or promoting LGBTI identities. This analysis traces how recent ECJ rulings have prepared the ground for this development and examines the Opinion’s implications for the future enforcement of the EU’s constitutional identity.
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Forced Sterilizations on Trial
On May 22, 2025, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights held a hearing in Ramos Durand et al. v. Peru. This is only the second forced sterilization case before the Court (after I.V. v. Bolivia) and the first addressing a widespread, state-led policy of coercion like Peru’s. For the first time, the IACHR may explicitly characterize forced sterilizations as reproductive violence and thus as a form of gender-based violence, contributing to a broader and more inclusive understanding of reproductive rights violations within the regional human rights framework.
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Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (née Swarupa Kumari Nehru) was a famous diplomat, politician and Indian freedom fighter during the 20th century. Her role in international politics and relations as well as the development of the model and formation of the United Nations is oftentimes shadowed by her connection to her brother Jawharlal Nehru, the first president of independent post-colonial India, and Mahatma Ghandi, who she fought alongside with for an Indian state free from British imperial rule.
Continue reading >>When Failure Succeeds and Success Fails
Despite its modest uptake since its inception in 2012, the European Citizens' Initiative (ECI) has become the subject of several cases before the Court of Justice of the EU. The ECI is the world's first and only instrument of direct transnational democracy, allowing a group of at least seven European citizens from seven different EU member states to request that the Union take new action. The growing legal challenges around successful but ineffective ECIs reflect a fundamental mismatch between constitutional recognition of participatory democracy and institutional realities.
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A Constitutional Settlement Is Poland’s Only Hope
In Poland, the narrow defeat of liberal Warsaw Mayor Rafał Trzaskowski by the ultra-conservative Karol Nawrocki in the June 1st presidential election marked a turning point. The possibility of restoring the pre-2015 constitutional order has effectively vanished. But this does not mean Polish democracy is doomed. Poland’s European partners must recognize the dramatic shift Polish voters delivered. Rather than fixating on the formal legality—or illegality—of the dizzying array of judicial reforms and counter-reforms enacted since 2015, the time has come to encourage all sides to pursue a national constitutional settlement. This new framework must address not only judicial independence but also the deeper social and political polarization now defining Polish life.
Continue reading >>Standing in the Face of Illiberal Elections
Venezuela held local and parliamentary elections on May 25th which Maduro’s allies won with an overwhelming majority. Even though Maduro had severely tilted the playing field in his favor, the regime did not have to alter the results from what was evident in the exit polls. This was partly because an important part of the opposition called for a boycott of the elections. We argue that for a beleaguered opposition, the question whether to boycott an election should reflect both pragmatic and strategic considerations of the prospects for democratic resistance.
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Legalising Authoritarianism through Pakistan’s Supreme Court
On 7 May 2025, Pakistan’s Supreme Court overturned its own previous judgment from October 2023 that had declared military trials of civilians unconstitutional. The newly constituted Constitutional Bench reinstated clauses of the Pakistan Army Act that allow for the prosecution of civilians in military courts. The ruling was justified on national security grounds, citing the need to prosecute attacks by civilians on military installations, a rationale that conflates dissent with terrorism and bypasses the safeguards of civilian legal processes. This decision not only reverses prior precedent but also marks a troubling endorsement of military jurisdiction over civilian matters, raising fundamental concerns about the erosion of judicial independence and the rule of law.
Continue reading >>Artificial Constitutionalism?
Large language models (LLMs) are rapidly becoming embedded in everyday life, serving functions that range from professional assistance to entertainment and even emotional support. As their popularity and adoption grow, so do the legal questions surrounding their use – especially when interactions with individuals result in harm. A crucial threshold issue in establishing the legal framework applicable to LLMs, including the responsibilities of their developers, is whether their outputs – often resembling human expression – can receive constitutional protection as “speech” The question is also key to determining the applicable legal regime, the liability of AI developers for such content, and its potential consequences for individuals.
Continue reading >>A Door Opened, But Not Fully
On 12 June 2025, the European Court of Human Rights issued a judgment in T.H. v. the Czech Republic – the first case brought by a non-binary person. The Court found a violation of Article 8 of the Convention for requiring sterilisation as a precondition for legal gender recognition. Yet, the misgendering of the applicant, the Court’s silence on Articles 3 and 14, and the absence of compensation all temper the applicant’s win.
Continue reading >>Beyond Legal Restoration
A recently published proposal by former Constitutional Court judge Béla Pokol suggests introducing a new emergency regime designed to defend Hungary’s illiberal system against potential re-democratization efforts by a future government. Together with international criticism of Poland’s judicial reform in its process of democratic renewal, this provokes a profound reckoning: traditional legal formalism may no longer serve the needs of constitutional recovery. It is time for a post-formalist approach to democratic reconstruction.
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Whose Values?
Value-based reasoning features prominently in CJEU case law, most recently in AG Ćapeta’s opinion in Commission v. Hungary. However, what is treated as absolute within the Union turns flexible and conditional in cases concerning asylum, integration, as well as anti-discrimination. A closer look at the “feminist” cases (WS, K and L, and AH and FN) reveals how “Western values”-centred reasoning is deployed at the Member State level and re-elaborated by the CJEU as the fundamental value of gender equality – opening the door to ideological reinterpretations.
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“Almost Genocide”
Genocidal intent does not necessarily pop, prefabricated, out of the perpetrator’s state’s head. It emerges – gradually, often unevenly – as a product of action, omission, emotion, and political opportunity. A war that once had legal justification as defence can thus harden into something else: the destruction of a group as such. This is as true in the specific conditions of Gaza, as it is as a matter of principle.
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Die Qualen des amerikanischen Föderalismus
Eine historische Perspektive auf den Konflikt in Los Angeles
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The Agonies of American Federalism
Understanding the Los Angeles Conflict in a Historical Frame
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Troops in L.A.
This past weekend, President Donald Trump issued a presidential memorandum that federalized National Guard troops and deployed those troops alongside active-duty marines in response to protests against his aggressive immigration enforcement operations in Los Angeles. While framed as a response to violence, the order also addresses peaceful protest. The decision to send military forces against civilians engaged in protected First Amendment activity marks a dangerous escalation, raising serious legal and constitutional concerns.
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Parlamentarische Frage vs. Schutz vor Rassismus
Parlamentarische Anfragen nach den Vornamen deutscher Tatverdächtiger haben eine unrühmliche Geschichte. 2024 verweigerte der Berliner Senat erstmals die Auskunft, weil er das Recht auf informationelle Selbstbestimmung verletzt sah. Der Berliner Verfassungsgerichtshof hat diese Argumentation nun zurückgewiesen und die Antwortverweigerung als Verstoß gegen Abgeordnetenrechte gewertet – ohne dabei den Rassismus solcher Anfragen zu thematisieren. Dagegen weist das Minderheitenvotum zu Recht darauf hin, dass Diskriminierungsverbote eine verfassungsimmanente Grenze parlamentarischer Informationsrechte bilden.
Continue reading >>Access Denied
In January 2025, we were notified that Verfassungsblog had been removed from the DOAJ, our subsequent appeal was rejected. We want to take this as an opportunity and initiate a debate about standards, formats, and diversity of the Diamond OA publishing community. As a first step, DOAJ has kindly permitted us to publish our appeal as well as their appeals decision so that our community and partners are able to follow the respective reasonings.
Continue reading >>Overcoming the Hungarian Veto
A Russian victory over Ukraine would make a military confrontation with Europe more likely. To prevent this, the Union must prolong the Russian sanctions, including the freezing of 200 billion EUR in central bank assets. The prolongation of these sanctions requires a unanimous decision pursuant to Article 31(1) TEU. Hungary threatens to obstruct this decision. We propose a way to end Hungary's obstruction. It requires no grand actions, only a few interpretative steps and a narrow political consensus.
Continue reading >>The Nondelegation Case Against Trump’s New Travel Ban
Donald Trump has imposed the second travel ban of his presidential history. Despite the enormous harm it is likely to cause, many assume there is no effective way to challenge it in court. The Supreme Court's ruling in Trump v. Hawaii (2018) – addressing Trump’s first-term “Muslim ban” – probably precludes challenges based on discriminatory intent. Nonetheless, there is an alternative path to striking down the new travel ban: the nondelegation doctrine. This doctrine sets limits to Congress’s delegation of legislative authority to the executive.
Continue reading >>Power, Profit, and Washington’s Paradox
The Trump administration has been accused of corruptly placing private financial benefit above the public interest, most recently in President Trump’s acceptance of the gift of a Boeing 747 from Qatar for his use as Air Force 1, and invitations to dinner at a private club and to a private White House tour, offered as perks for those who invested substantial sums in his Stablecoin. Although, here, the President’s self-enrichment is blatant, more troubling are his policies aimed at dismantling safeguards against corruption at home and abroad. These reveal a deep contradiction in the warring goals of those currently governing in Washington; a contradiction that may eventually burst into the open.
Continue reading >>Somewhere Over The Rainbow
On 5 June 2025, Advocate General Ćapeta issued her Opinion in Commission v. Hungary, a landmark ECJ case on Hungary’s “anti-LGBTIQ” law. While the law is overtly discriminatory, the Commission framed its case around internal market rules, Charter rights, and Article 2 TEU values. While this might seem curious, I argue this reflects a strategic “camouflaging” of non-discrimination claims to better protect LGBTIQ rights within the limits of current EU anti-discrimination and equality law.
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Anatomy of a Liberal Fall
In Poland, just one week ago, Karol Nawrocki – a virtually unknown, PiS-backed candidate with a murky past – surprisingly defeated Rafał Trzaskowski, deputy leader of the centrist Civic Platform and mayor of Warsaw. How could such a random figure triumph over an experienced and popular politician? In this commentary, I argue that Trzaskowski’s defeat was no accident, but the latest chapter in a longer political story – one shaped by public frustration, broken promises, the emptiness of Polish liberalism, and anti-elitist sentiment present in the society.
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What Nawrocki’s Victory Means for Europe
On June 1st, Polish voters rendered a fateful decision in the presidential election. Karol Nawrocki narrowly defeated Rafał Trzaskowski, the pro-European mayor of Warsaw. Nawrocki’s victory carries profound implications for Poland’s domestic trajectory. Moreover, despite what some commentators have argued, the new president might also well pose a threat for the European Union.
Continue reading >>From Dialogue to Discord
Advocate General Ćapeta delivered her Opinion regarding a violation of Article 2 TEU, which lies at the heart of the pending case before the CJEU – a case that bears, quite appropriately, the name “Valeurs de l’Union”. Her opinion is likely to cause a stir. Even though this is not the final judgment, it is unprecedented for Article 2 TEU to be declared justiciable and found to have been infringed.
Continue reading >>U.S. Sanctions on the International Criminal Court
Since the negotiation of the Rome Statute, U.S. relations with the Court have zig-zagged between quiet support and open hostility. With President Trump’s return to office, we are back to confrontation. On June 5, Secretary of State Marco Rubio made sanction designations of four ICC judges – two of whom authorized the investigation into Afghanistan and two of whom approved the Netanyahu and Gallant arrest warrants. This post describes these developments and situates them within the broader context of U.S.-ICC relations.
Continue reading >>“The Rule of Law Depends on Administration With Integrity”
Five Questions to Till Patrik Holterhus
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„Der Rechtsstaat ist auf eine redliche Verwaltung angewiesen“
Fünf Fragen an Till Patrik Holterhus
Continue reading >>Migrant “Instrumentalisation” before the ICJ
On 19 May, Lithuania introduced proceedings against Belarus before the International Court of Justice for the alleged smuggling of migrants. Lithuania claims that Belarus violated provisions of the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, which supplements the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. This blog will detail several difficulties with Lithuania’s argument which seeks to collapse key differences between migrant smuggling and the practice of migrant “instrumentalisation”.
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Using Immigration Court as a Trap
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) has begun apprehending noncitizens at immigration court – where individuals appear to seek humanitarian relief or defend against deportation – immediately after the government moves to dismiss their case. Immigrants and their attorneys are increasingly reporting that ICE, in coordination with government lawyers, is detaining individuals as they exit court following such dismissals. Rather than providing a reprieve, dismissal is now being used to facilitate detention and potentially summary deportation, raising serious concerns about due process and adherence to governing statutes in the United States.
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Sleeping on Bills
In a landmark judgment from April 2025, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that gubernatorial inaction is unconstitutional. Responding to the Governor of Tamil Nadu’s failure to act on ten bills, the Court declared such inaction “illegal” and reasserted limits to gubernatorial discretion. It not only imposed a timeframe for assent but also used its extraordinary powers to deem the bills passed.
Continue reading >>A New Look at Confiscating Russian Assets
In the near future, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) may issue its first compensation awards against Russia for its conduct in the war in Ukraine. When that happens, the question of how to enforce such awards will become paramount. Given Russia’s lack of cooperation, claimants may seek to enforce compensation awards in third states holding Russian assets, a promising yet untested avenue. Drawing from a recent report by Open Society Justice Initiative (OSJI), this post explores some of the legal hurdles this avenue entails as well as some of its broader implications. We believe that this approach could be a limited but significant instrument to redress harm for victims of human rights abuse committed in the war.
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“For the Sole Reason of Being Born Mixed-Race”
Where there is a will, there is a way. This phrase could sum up the logic behind the recent judgment of the Brussels Court of Appeal which condemned the Belgian government to compensate for the damage resulting from the abduction and racial segregation of children of white fathers and Black mothers during its colonisation of the Congo. The judgment sets a historic precedent: it is the first time that a domestic Court has ordered the government to pay financial compensation for acts that could have had amounted to crimes against humanity during its colonial past.
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It’s Not a Trap
Despite most countries having trouble getting rid of bribery in daily life, only few so far have dared integrity testing: sending out undercover testers disguised as ordinary citizens to contact the public administration and check which public employees ask for bribes. The main argument against such undercover tests has been that they constitute “entrapment”. However, in Cavca, the ECtHR finally dispels the myth that these tests in and of themselves equal entrapment. Yet, the decision leaves one key question unaddressed: Just when does integrity testing become entrapment?
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Populism over Principle
As EU officials arrive in Sofia to celebrate Bulgaria’s readiness for euro adoption, nationalist-fueled protests erupt in the streets. The tensions were triggered by President Rumen Radev’s unexpected call for a referendum on whether the country should join the euro on 1 January 2026 – despite Bulgaria having met all convergence criteria after years of effort. Far from a genuine democratic impulse, the move appears to be a populist gamble, trading legal commitments and European credibility for short-term political gain.
Continue reading >>Behind Bars, Beyond Rights
The European Court of Human Rights has quietly endorsed a troubling new practice: denying prisoners access to information based solely on format, not content. In Tergek v. Türkiye, the Court upheld a ban on photocopies and printouts, deferring to vague security concerns. Read alongside Yasak, the judgment signals a broader shift away from rigorous rights protection toward deference to state narratives. If this trend continues, the Convention's core promise — to make rights practical and effective — stands on increasingly shaky ground.
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Othering in EU Law
The so-called migrant crisis has been instrumentalized to promote ideas such as “massive invasion” and “the great replacement” – narratives that frame migrants as threats to public security and cultural identity. This rhetoric forms part of a broader phenomenon of othering, in which legal mechanisms are used to exclude and marginalize migrant populations. This text explores how EU migration law actively contributes to this process by reinforcing exclusionary narratives and practices. Drawing on postcolonial scholarship and the concept of borderization, it argues that EU legal frameworks regulate certain groups as undesirable or excessive, echoing colonial patterns of control. These exclusionary dynamics are not merely reflections of societal bias but are structurally embedded in EU law itself.
Continue reading >>Genocide in Gaza?
“Israel is committing genocide in Gaza.” This was the claim raised by South Africa before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague just two and a half months after Hamas' large-scale terrorist attack on Israel on October 7, 2023. South Africa alleges that Israel's military counteroffensive is not (primarily) directed against Hamas, but rather aims to destroy the group of Palestinians in Gaza as such. This accusation carries significant political and legal weight. However, proving the necessary intent to destroy is difficult; it should not be accepted lightly. At any rate, as Israel's warfare continues and becomes increasingly brutal, the evidence for genocide is mounting.
Continue reading >>The Questionable Concept of Protective Weapons
On 20 May 2025, the European Court of Human Rights handed down a landmark ruling in Russ v. Germany, finding that penalising a protester for wearing a makeshift visor breached his freedom of assembly. With its clear rejection of the German courts’ blanket approach, Strasbourg echoes long-standing constitutional concerns in German legal scholarship over the criminalisation of defensive gear at protests. Beyond Germany, the judgment affirms the Court’s role in shielding democratic participation across Europe.
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Trump’s Threat to Nonprofits
The administration of President Trump is threatening nonprofits with the loss of tax-exempt status in an attempt to force them to conform their activities to policies favored by that administration. The threats are based on shaky legal grounds, and nonprofits have both constitutional and statutory bases for countering them. Nevertheless, these threats are significant, especially when combined with the administration’s efforts to cut government funding for many programs operated by nonprofits. And at the same time, the U.S. Congress is considering reducing the benefits of tax-exempt status in many ways, primarily to help pay for tax cuts benefitting wealthy individuals and corporations.
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Slovakia’s Electoral Reform at a Crossroads
On May 21st and 22nd 2025, Prime Minister Robert Fico and Interior Minister Matúš Šutaj Eštok presented a series of proposals for substantial changes to Slovakia’s electoral system. The opposition swiftly criticized the plans as a threat to democratic governance. While the proposals differ in the severity of their constitutional and political implications, the most troubling is the significant increase in electoral deposits, which risks entrenching structural barriers to participation. In the context of Fico’s recent public rejection of liberal democracy and praise for one-party regimes, these reforms warrant close scrutiny – if not alarm.
Continue reading >>A Tarnished Institution from Its Start
June 1st was a historical day for Mexico. The Mexican people – or, more precisely, around 13% of the electorate – went to the ballots to democratically elect their judges for the first time. The newly elected 2681 public officials, which will be announced in the following weeks, will serve in the local and federal judiciary, including the Supreme Court, and solve all types of disputes. While MORENA promises that the amendment will grant Mexico a reinvigorated judicial branch, it is instead getting a newly elected judiciary whose legitimacy has been tarnished from its very start.
Continue reading >>Peace at What Price?
In recent months, a growing number of voices – from political figures such as U.S. President Donald Trump and Slovak Prime Minister Robert Fico to various public opinion polls – have suggested that a resolution to the war in Ukraine may require Kyiv to cede some of its territory to Russia. These arguments, now gaining renewed attention as peace talks have begun, frame territorial concessions as a pragmatic step toward ending the conflict. Ceding Ukrainian land under these conditions, however, would reward historical revisionism as a geopolitical strategy and set a dangerous precedent in international law.
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Success Without Victory
One of the most striking climate cases has come to a striking end. The Higher Regional Court of Hamm dismissed the lawsuit against RWE on minor factual grounds – yet at the same time confirmed that major emitters can, in principle, be held liable under German private law for climate-related harms. The ruling may ultimately represent a success without victory: A short-term loss for the plaintiff, but one that provides important insights and strategic lessons for future climate liability cases.
Continue reading >>“German Officials Might Be Criminally Liable”
Five Questions to Kai Ambos
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„Auch deutsche Beamte könnten sich strafbar gemacht haben“
Fünf Fragen an Kai Ambos
Continue reading >>Another Thread in the Spider Web
On April 14, 2025, the Hungarian parliament passed the 15th Amendment to the Fundamental Law, including new provisions allowing for the suspension of citizenship. Alongside the newly introduced Citizenship Suspension Law, the framework’s vague and expansive criteria provide the government with a powerful instrument to strip political opponents of their right to vote ahead of the 2026 parliamentary election - despite official claims to the contrary.
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Challenging Strasbourg
Since 22 May 2025, a disquieting letter has been circulating: nine leading EU politicians are calling for “a new and open-minded conversation about the interpretation of the European Convention on Human Rights,” with particular reference to migration. The signatories seek to explore whether “the Court, in some cases, has extended the scope of the Convention on Human Rights too far compared with the original intentions behind the Convention, thus shifting the balance between the interests that should be protected.” The letter raises not only political and ethical questions but also significant legal concerns.
Continue reading >>A Blow to Our Constitutional System
A little-noticed Supreme Court order may pave the way for a dramatic expansion of presidential authority—overturning a 90-year-old precedent and weakening the independence of key regulatory agencies. In the hands of a would-be autocrat, the Supreme Court decision has delivered a serious blow to the constitutional system.
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Challenging Safe Access
Safe Access Zones (SAZ) in Great Britain, in force since autumn 2024, establish protective areas around abortion service providers and criminalise specific behaviours within these zones. However, ongoing anti-abortion protests raise questions about the practical enforceability of the new laws. This article examines whether SAZ laws can withstand these challenges and argues that they succeed in striking a fair balance between the rights of anti-abortion demonstrators and pregnant persons seeking access to lawful abortion services under the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).
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Dismantling Jus Soli
The principle of jus soli has been progressively dismantled in France through the tightening of conditions governing access to French nationality in Mayotte—the 101st department of the Republic and an archipelago in the Comoros located in the Indian Ocean. This restrictive approach was reinforced by the adoption, on 9 April 2025, of a new legislative measure designed to further limit access to birthright citizenship. The Conseil constitutionnel upheld the constitutionality of the contested provisions in its decision of 7 May 2025.
Continue reading >>Georgia’s Foreign Agent Law 2.0
Tolga Şirin recently argued for activating interim measures under Rule 39 of the European Court of Human Rights in cases of political prosecution, such as that of Istanbul’s mayor İmamoğlu. This argument gains renewed urgency in light of Georgia’s proposed foreign agent law. Indeed, as civil society organizations (CSOs) face the threat of criminal sanctions under “Foreign Agent Law 2.0”, Rule 39 could become their last remaining remedy.
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Fury and Surprise Anchored in Dogmas and Myths
The Court of Justice’s judgment in Commission v Malta has created quite some upheaval. That the judgment has caught so many legal commentators wrong-footed can be attributed to the fact that both sides overwhelmingly come from the premise that Member States are sovereign to decide who their nationals are and that there is no such thing as a genuine link requirement for nationality. This blog takes a closer look at these alleged certainties, and sets out why the judgment is not that surprising at all – lifting the veil of untenable dogmas and mystifications that have surrounded Declaration No 2 and the Court’s Micheletti judgment for too long along the way.
Continue reading >>Taking Labour Law for a Ride
“Decent work in the platform economy” is one of the items the ILO will discuss during its upcoming 113th International Labour Conference from 2 to 13 June 2025 – a first in the ILO’s history. That proper classification of the employment relationship is fundamental to the application of fundamental rights was a critical point of contention among countries, employers and workers at the ILO, and thus brought the item on this year’s agenda. Proper classification of employment relationships remains a challenge, not just for the ILO. So, what exactly is the problem and how can we solve it?
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Hot Rule of Law Potatoes
Bulgaria’s civil society has much anticipated a key judgment by the CJEU as concerns over the entrenched capture and politicization of the Inspectorate with the Supreme Judicial Council (JI) continue to cast doubts about judicial independence and accountability in the country. Regrettably, however, the highly formalist ruling will hardly make a difference.
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The Meta Oversight Board in the Trump Era
In its latest decisions following major policy shifts at Meta, the Oversight Board appears to be moving toward a more permissive approach to harmful or discriminatory content. This post argues that such a trend could reshape the boundaries of acceptable speech online and raises pressing questions about the Board’s independence and role in an increasingly politicised content governance landscape.
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The German Rule of Law Is Getting Lost in Islamabad
Law, Order, and the Federal Admission Programme for Afghanistan
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Der deutsche Rechtsstaat geht in Islamabad verloren
Recht, Ordnung und das Bundesaufnahmeprogramm Afghanistan
Continue reading >>From Syrian Revolution to Constitutional Ambiguity
The remarkable yet tragic victory of the Syrian revolution reached its turning point on December 7, 2024. Unlike the coups of the 1950s and 60s, whose leaders immediately sought legal legitimacy, the current de facto ruler, Ahmad al-Sharaa, has declared a five-year transitional period under a temporary Constitutional Declaration. While it formally guarantees equality, the Declaration omits fundamental democratic safeguards and fails to ensure the separation of powers - entrenching a system of self-referential authority and executive dominance that mirrors the authoritarian dynamics of the past.
Continue reading >>We the Bugs
On April 14, 2025, the Hungarian parliament passed the 15th Amendment to the Fundamental Law, triggering mass protest across Budapest. Amongst its most far-reaching provisions is the constitutional entrenchment of binary sex. Read alongside a reworded Article XVI, which affirms that “every child has the right to the protection and care necessary for his or her proper physical, mental, and moral development”, these provisions establish a new hierarchy of fundamental rights, placing child protection above all others, including the right to peaceful assembly. These changes may now lend formal constitutional legitimacy to discriminatory legislation seeking to ban Pride Parades.
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Addio, Rule of Law?
Fears are spreading that Italy, too, may be joining the club of EU Member States dismantling the rule of law. In this post, I will discuss three episodes that indeed lay bare a set of enduring constitutional tensions: the “Striano gate”; the “Paragon affair”; and the enactment of a Security Decree. While the actors involved are not the same in each story, the constitutional stakes are analogous: the proper use of coercive powers in a democracy and the traditional dichotomy between freedom and state authority. So, are we witnessing early signs of democratic regression?
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Poland’s Polarised Presidency
The first round of Poland’s presidential election has produced an inconclusive but politically charged outcome. With no candidate achieving an absolute majority, the second round will determine who succeeds Andrzej Duda in the Presidential Palace. This election marks yet another critical moment for Poland. In the short term, its outcome will be pivotal for the current government to deliver on promises concerning the rule of law, the judiciary, and more. In the longer term, winning the presidential race is a strategic stepping stone towards consolidating or reclaiming power.
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A Threat to the Core
On May 13, 2025, just before midnight, a FIDESZ deputy tabled a new bill before the Hungarian Parliament. The bill seeks to enhance “sovereignty protection measures” by introducing sweeping transparency instruments targeting foreign-funded interference in Hungarian public life. These restrictions purposefully shrink civic space further, roll back protections of fundamental rights and impair the functioning of constitutional democracy in a retrogressive fashion. When adopted, Hungary’s constitutional order will fundamentally regress from the state that existed at the time of its accession to the European Union.
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Text Messages, Transparency, and the Rule of Law
On 14 May 2025, the General Court of the EU ruled in favour of The New York Times in the much-awaited Pfizergate case, annulling the European Commission's decision to withhold the SMS text messages presumed to have been exchanged between EU Commission President von der Leyen and Pfizer CEO Albert Bourla. While presented as another case concerning document access, potentially illuminating the informal negotiation process behind COVID-19 vaccine contracts and the management and archive of texts and other instant messages, this judgment largely defies this expectation.
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Legality Over Accountability?
On April 23, 2025, public prosecutors in Guatemala executed an arrest warrant against Luis Pacheco, the Deputy Energy Minister. This case is only the latest in a series of politically motivated prosecutions that place the Attorney General at the center of Guatemala’s democratic backsliding. She has systematically targeted journalists, public officials and civil society actors, undermining democracy, the rule of law, and fundamental rights. What can be done when legal mechanisms to hold public officials accountable are effectively blocked? When there are credible grounds to believe that a public official is abusing their mandate, accountability must take precedence in legal and political debate.
Continue reading >>Whom Is Citizenship For?
On Thursday, May 15, the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments in “the birthright citizenship case.” Instead of deciding on the constitutionality of President Trump’s executive order (EO) banning birthright citizenship for certain classes of individuals, the Court is asked to decide whether lower courts exceeded their authority in placing a nation-wide injunction on the government’s order. But this doesn't make the decision any less significant.
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Undoing the American Rechtsstaat
Donald Trump’s return to the forefront of U.S. politics brings an urgent constitutional question back into focus: Can the American administrative state survive another presidency driven by executive absolutism? Recent developments before the Supreme Court, especially in Trump v. U. S., suggest that long-standing norms and legal safeguards are under siege. This post explores how a second Trump term might exploit structural vulnerabilities in U.S. public law, with consequences that extend far beyond American borders.
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Safe for whom?
The EU’s notion of “safe countries of origin” is on increasingly shaky ground. In a recent Opinion, Advocate General de la Tour suggests that a country can still be deemed safe even when specific groups face serious threats there. This reinterpretation breaks with established case law and risks hollowing out core procedural protections for asylum seekers across Europe. It remains to be seen how this stance will influence the delicate balance between efficient processing and safeguarding fundamental rights.
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Dobrindts Rechtsbruch
Der neue Innenminister Alexander Dobrindt hat am 7. Mai 2025 die Bundespolizei angewiesen auch Schutzsuchenden bei Binnengrenzkontrollen die Einreise basierend auf § 18 Abs. 2 Nr. 1 AsylG zu verweigern (und diese in den jeweiligen angrenzenden Staat zurückzuweisen). Damit sind die bei Schutzsuchenden verpflichtend durchzuführenden Dublin-Verfahren für diese Personengruppe faktisch ausgesetzt. Davon ausgenommen sind nur „erkennbar vulnerable Personen“, die „weiterhin an die zuständigen Stellen oder Erstaufnahmeeinrichtung weitergeleitet werden.“ Diese Aussetzung des Dublin-Verfahrens an den deutschen Binnengrenzen ist evident rechtswidrig – also ein klarer Rechtsbruch.
Continue reading >>Tilting the Scales
On April 10 2025 AG Norkus delivered his Opinion in the appeal of Hamoudi v Frontex (Case C-136/24). In it, he tackles a question that is pivotal not only for Mr. Hamoudi’s right to compensation but also for the evolution of the EU legal system: how should the CJEU address stark power imbalances in evidentiary matters? In formulating EU procedural rules for cases involving collective expulsions, the CJEU should take into account the blatant asymmetry in accessing evidence existing between asylum seekers adrift at sea and an EU Agency equipped with cutting-edge surveillance technology. Yet, the reasoning of the AG on the allocation of the burden of proof misfires in some crucial respects.
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Law and Political Economy Beyond the State
The study of European Union Law from the perspective of Law and Political Economy (LPE) offers valuable insights from two perspectives. This post shows that on the one hand, LPE as a scholarly movement provides a critical framework for analysing fundamental legal aspects of the EU’s political economy and brings to the debate a much needed renewal of the importance of the critique of the political economy. On the other hand, investigating the EU from a perspective sensitive to LPE analysis is also a potentially enriching challenge for the scholarly movement itself.
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Academic Vertigo
What is therefore needed is a much thicker description of the current phase of semantic destabilization. This implies to build a new questionnaire able to grasp the dynamics of contemporary legal controversies allowing to bring historical depth and socio-legal […] While there is certainly a large variety of methodologies able to address this questionnaire, […] I contend however that a socio-genetic approach is better equipped when it comes to unpack the notion of “context” and reconstitute the complex “hermeneutic space” of legal concepts that continuously move back and forth from the legal and the political fields.
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The Dark Side of Humor
On March 3, 2025, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) released its final judgment in Yevstifeyev and others v. Russia. The decision concerned two applications against the Russian government, claiming that the domestic authorities had failed to comply with their obligation to “respond adequately” to homophobic messages and thus violated the applicants’ right to private life under Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention. This ruling offers an excellent illustration of the Court’s flawed understanding of the role of humor and satire in the protection of free speech.
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Just Asking
Have you ever wondered why a legal text is the way it is, or whether its implementation actually works as intended? Typically, one would approach such questions by consulting existing textual material. If one is extraordinary inquisitive, one might even file access-to-document requests. However, sometimes one cannot escape the feeling that something is missing. In that situation, I suggest, one should do the obvious: talk to people who know better – ideally, the people working on or embodying the phenomenon one intends to research.
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Glancing Beyond Europe
On 9 May 1831, a young French aristocrat trained as lawyer arrived in Rhode Island for a nine-months visit to the United States. Officially tasked by the French government with studying the American prison system, his ambition and desire for political and literary fame propelled him to conduct a much broader study of the character of the American Republic. Based on his observations, the young lawyer wrote Democracy in America; a book that holds as much insight about the European Union today as it did about the early American Republic back then.
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The Nationality Lottery
On 24 March 2025, the Amsterdam District Court issued a consequential judgement on deprivation of nationality after a terrorist conviction. The ruling stated that the Dutch government could not revoke the nationality of a person convicted of terrorism-related crimes, declaring it a violation of the prohibition of discrimination based on ethnic origin. The judgement marks a departure from previous case law established by the Council of State – the highest administrative court in the Netherlands – as it reconceptualizes the issue of deprivation of nationality as one of direct discrimination based on ethnic origin. However, it fails to provide a clear explanation for its reasoning and seems to conflate nationality with ethnicity.
Continue reading >>“Only a Vigilant Democracy Can Be a Resilient Democracy”
Five Questions to Kyrill-Alexander Schwarz
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„Nur die wachsame Demokratie kann eine wehrhafte Demokratie sein“
Fünf Fragen an Kyrill-Alexander Schwarz
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Mirroring Society’s Struggles
The Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) stands as a central institution in the European legal and political landscape. Its judgments not only shape the trajectory of European integration but also reveal deeper EU Law Stories – ideological clashes, conflicting narratives and distributive consequences with the subtle emergence of winners and losers in each case. Yet, these dimensions often remain hidden behind the opaque language of the increasingly lengthy rulings and traditional doctrinal analysis.
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Local Meanings of EU Law
Law can be viewed not as a universal (or European) science but, following Geertz, as local knowledge. To illustrate the relevance of this perspective for understanding EU law, its effects, and the limits of integration through law, this text draws on the findings of a “classical” comparative study on the application of proportionality as an EU law principle in three national contexts: France, England, and Greece. This type of approach has the potential to evolve – and indeed is already evolving – into an interdisciplinary exploration of the diverse ways in which EU law is understood, applied, and experienced in settings as varied as the Paagalayiri market in Ouagadougou, the train-line connection between Paris and Marseille, or the camp of Moria on Lesvos.
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(De)coloniality and EU Legal Studies
In EU legal studies, time, space, place, and knowledge are locations for contestation, deliberation and reconstruction. Other submissions in this symposium have elaborated on the limitations in understanding and accounting for the ‘what was’ as a fundamental blind spot of EU law. Extending from this starting point, I will show how decolonial approaches can bridge the gap between history, theory, and action, offering practical and alternative solutions for reconciliation. To do so, I will use the rule of law as one such site for contestation.
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The Human Factor in EU Law
This post emphasizes the human factor as a critical method of analysis for legal scholars specializing in European Union law. The aim is to critically analyse the evolution of the rules governing the CJEU, shedding light on its composition, organization, and functioning, while also proposing reform initiatives. Some of these reforms prioritize greater transparency within the CJEU. Furthermore, by focusing on the human factor in EU law, this method reveals how individuals are positioned within the institution, helping to identify potential phenomena of invisibility or exclusion in decision-making processes.
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It’s solidarity, stupid!
Few cases have triggered as stark reactions as Commission v Malta. In the ruling’s aftermath, many legal scholars and practitioners were quick to discard the decision. While the ruling is bold, innovative, and goes far beyond established precedent, the Court’s reasoning remains brief, ambiguous, in some parts even obscure and sibylline. Yet, most of the Court’s “great” judgments have left room for interpretation. No doubt, Commission v Malta will be subject to many, very different, affirmative or critical interpretations. In the following, I will provide one – of several possible! – readings, which seeks to square the ruling with constitutional reasoning.
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Longing for Safety before the European Court of Justice
On 10 April 2025, Advocate General de la Tour delivered his Advisory Opinion in the joined cases Alace and Canpelli dealing with the powers of Italy – and, by extension, other EU Member States – to legislate on what constitutes a “safe third country” and a “safe country of origin”. The AG confirmed that Italy can list a third country as “safe” when it is “generally” deemed as such, provided that this designation is compliant with EU law. This piece discusses how the human rights of applicants seeking international protection are likely to be hindered by this approach.
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The Silent Engine of European Citizenship
In its ruling on 29 April 2025 in Case C-181/23 Commission v Malta, the Grand Chamber held that Malta’s investor citizenship scheme, which grants Maltese nationality in exchange for predetermined payments or investments, was contrary to EU law. Although the judgment has been criticised (perhaps not without reason) for its lack of doctrinal foundation, it does demonstrate that the EU principle of mutual trust has constitutional character and is normatively capable of challenging national administrative mechanisms, such as the Maltese naturalisation scheme, that are incompatible with the values in Art. 2 TEU.
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The “Crisis of Critique” in EU Law
Critique has become one of the latest buzzwords in EU legal studies. Who, after all, would not want to be identified as a critical scholar if the danger is that one’s work might otherwise be labelled as reactionary, unsophisticated, naïve or whatever other signifier could be used to demolish the value of scholarly enterprise? But the down-side of this growing interest in being critical as an EU law scholar is that the idea of critique itself is in danger of becoming inflated.
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Ongoing Controversies over Methods in EU Law
Since the publication of last year’s symposium “Controversies over Methods in EU Law”, methodological issues are still pervading contemporary debates in EU law. These ongoing controversies over methods in EU law reflect a broader rethinking of the discipline, influenced by multiple crises in the European Union. These crises have led scholars to question their relationship with the European institutions, which have been central to the development of the core concepts of EU law and of EU law as a disciplinary field.
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Anatomy of a Fall
On 11 February 2025, the Commission published its 2025 work programme and revealed the likely withdrawal of the Proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Liability Directive (‘AILD proposal’), citing “no foreseeable agreement” among Member States. This blog post highlights the proposed AILD’s main merits and shortcomings and it explores the implications of its likely withdrawal for EU tech regulation by clarifying the interplay between AI liability rules, the AI Act, and the PLD.
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What is Citizenship For?
Last week, the CJEU declared Malta’s citizenship for investment scheme incompatible with EU law. Setting aside the evidently highly questionable quality and defensibility of the Court’s legal reasoning, the decision clearly casts Union citizenship as a status constituted by meanings and norms specific to the European Union as a normative legal project. What are we to make of this conception of citizenship, and its use by the Court to strike down citizenship for investment schemes?
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Trump 2.0 as ‘Dual State’?
Donald Trump’s radicalized efforts to transform US constitutional democracy into personalized executive-centered rule have again generated a predictable avalanche of invocations of Carl Schmitt. Less predictably, recent political commentators have turned to one of Schmitt’s contemporary critics, the mid-century socialist jurist and political scientist, Ernst Fraenkel, claiming that his account of the Nazi “dual state,” in which rule-based normative and discretionary prerogative legal spheres uneasily coexisted, provides a useful template for making sense of Trump 2.0’s highly selective rendition of legal fidelity.
Continue reading >>Why bother with legal reasoning?
Hindsight can make one look naive. Following the Opinion of Advocate General Collins in Commission v Malta, I argued that ‘the rhetorical battle over citizenship by investment has been won by the EU institutions’ but that ‘emotions and rhetoric alone should not decide legal battles’. Of course, I should have known better: the central dogma on which a large lineage of EU citizenship cases rests – that EU citizenship is destined to be the fundamental status of nationals – is a rhetorical device without basis in EU law. And once again, in the Commission v Malta ruling of 29 April 2025, on whether Malta was in breach of its obligations under EU law by maintaining and promoting a citizenship by investment (CBI) scheme, the Court prioritised rhetoric and political expediency over solid legal argumentation.
Continue reading >>EU Citizenship’s New Essentialism
The Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that the Maltese citizenship by investment violates EU law. The Court thereby hints – for the first time – that EU citizenship bond is not only legal in nature. Citizenship has suddenly become a legal but also some other connection between a person and the state. In other words, the law is not enough to make one a citizen, as any such citizenship might fall short of ‘solidarity and good faith’ test at the EU level. This newly-invented extra-legal rule put thousands of Europeans in limbo. This blog will locate some key steps marking this development and offer a possible presentation of the recent decades of EU law in three broad steps, to show how we got where we are.
Continue reading >>Criminalising Boycott Calls
Can a call for boycott ever amount to hate speech? In an era of deepening political divides, the question is increasingly influenced by geopolitics rather than human rights law: The Turkish government's criminalization of boycott calls in response to protests against political repression highlights the dangers of weaponizing hate speech laws, echoing a global double standard that undermines the universal application of human rights protections.
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All This for «Primacy»?
There is hardly any clearer picture of the “tragic” pitfall in which the EU languishes than the last evolutions of the rule of law’s saga, the most recent of which is the C-448/23 case pending before the ECJ. The AG’s Opinion delivered on March 11th shows signs of the decline the EU suffers for the multiple crises occurred and for its reluctance to tackle politically, and open-mindedly, the manifold interrogatives that follow.
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Elisabeth Mann Borgese
In public international law circles, especially those indulging in the law of the sea, Elisabeth Mann Borgese, the youngest daughter born to German Nobel Prize-winning novelist Thomas Mann in 1918, is perhaps best known for her pioneering work on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Her convictions and contributions to the UNCLOS focused on social justice, equitable access to resources, and environmental protection. By offering a glimpse into her contributions to the UNCLOS, this post highlights how Elisabeth Mann Borgese’s ideology – influenced in part by her cautious feminist beliefs – permeates her legacy.
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Harvard Under Attack
Since Donald Trump took office as the 47th President of the United States of America, hardly a week has gone by without academic institutions coming under attack. The U.S. government is now claiming that Harvard - and other universities - are violating Title VI of the Civil Rights Act by serving as “breeding grounds for anti-Semitism”. This raises numerous constitutional questions.
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Popular Struggle for Democracy in Indonesia
In Indonesia, newly elected President Prabowo Subianto is facing nationwide protests against his democracy-eroding policies. As institutional checks and balances are gradually being dismantled from within and the executive continues to accumulate power, the “Dark Indonesia” protest movement highlights the importance of a critical civil society in safeguarding a country’s democracy.
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The EU Free Market Does Not Extend to Citizenship
In the landmark Commission v Malta judgment of 29 April 2025, the European Union Court of Justice outlawed the “commercialisation” of EU citizenship, closing a door for corrupt actors. The Grand Chamber judgment not only bars the Maltese practice at issue, but also casts doubt on the legality of citizenship grants under that and similar schemes, while raising legal arguments for would-be citizens to challenge discriminatory laws.
Continue reading >>The Legal Authority (or Lack Thereof) for Trump’s Tariffs
The Trump tariffs have increased the average weighted U.S. tariff to 23% – a ten-fold increase from a year ago. Outside observers have been puzzled about how one person, even the U.S. president, has the power to single-handedly enact such sweeping changes to the U.S. and global economy. In fact, President Trump may not – and in my view, does not – have the power to impose most of his tariffs.
Continue reading >>Harvard Under Attack
Seit dem Amtsantritt von Donald Trump als 47. Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika vergeht kaum eine Woche, in der wissenschaftliche Einrichtungen nicht attackiert werden. Die US-Regierung macht nun geltend, dass Harvard – und andere Universitäten – gegen Title VI des Civil Rights Acts verstießen, indem sie als „Brutstätten für Antisemitismus“ dienten. Das wirft allerlei verfassungsrechtliche Fragen auf.
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The (TikTok) Ban Is Dead, Long Live the Ban
In 2024, amidst social unrest, the French government banned TikTok in Kanaky-New Caledonia. In April 2025, the Council of State reviewed the ban. This post examines the implications of the judgment through the lens of the legal doctrine on emergency powers – particularly its impact on the separation of powers – and situates it within the broader context of Kanaky-New Caledonia’s ongoing decolonization process from France.
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Outrage Matters
Is the Supreme Court of the United States Getting Fed up with Donald Trump?
Continue reading >>(de) la Tour fait le cavalier
On 3 April 2025, AG de la Tour handed down his Opinion in C-713/23, Wojewoda Mazowiecki, a case concerning the recognition and transcription of same-sex marriage contracted in another Member State between two nationals of the State where recognition was sought. The Opinion states that Member States where same-sex marriage is not permitted must recognise a family bond lawfully established in another Member State. Yet, akin to a knight’s leap in chess, the Opinion sidestepped the question of marriage transcription with a reasoning that does not seem entirely convincing.
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Balancing Intellectual Property Protection with the Human Right to a Healthy Environment
This contribution examines the practical ways in which the human right to a healthy environment (HR2HE) can influence the development and interpretation of intellectual property (IP) laws. It focuses on two potential approaches to reconciling this human right with IP: (1) the so-called “internal” reconciliation approach, which essentially uses the HR2HE as an interpretive tool to recalibrate IP law’s own internal rules and mechanisms in a more sustainability-friendly direction, and (2) the “external” reconciliation approach, which views the HR2HE as an independent defence against IP infringement actions that can be invoked in courts to challenge allegations of IP infringement.
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Narrowing the Estonian Electorate
On 26 March 2025, the Parliament of the Republic of Estonia amended the composition of the electorate for local government elections. Prior to this amendment, the Constitution had granted voting rights in local elections to all permanent residents of a municipality. A significant portion of these voters were citizens of the Russian Federation or Belarus, or stateless persons originating from these states. The decision to revise the electorate was driven by the Russian Federation’s war of aggression in Ukraine, and increasing influence operations in both Estonia and Europe more broadly.
Continue reading >>Greenforcement of Intellectual Property Rights
The current practice of enforcement of intellectual property rights impacts the environment in many ways. There is increasing recognition of the pressing need for more human and environmentally friendly alternative remedies, such as donating goods to charity, removing infringing signs or parts, or disposing of the goods outside the EEA/EU. The question is whether and to what extent the legal framework leaves room for ecologically sustainable alternatives to disposing of and destroying IPR-infringing goods.
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Criminalising the Legal Profession
Lawyers and bar associations in Turkey have long faced political and legal pressure. The court case against the Istanbul Bar Association that led to the dismissal of its executive board and the criminal prosecution of board members is another troubling instance of such pressure. The case exemplifies how authoritarian regimes increasingly criminalise lawyers and professional organisations that speak out against rights violations.
Continue reading >>Back to Binary Basics
On April 16 2025, the UK Supreme Court delivered its decision on a fundamental question regarding the interpretation of the terms “sex” and “woman” under the Equality Act. The Court unanimously held that, under the Equaliy Act, the meaning of the word “woman” must be restricted to “biological” women, and does not include trans women, even those who have legally changed their gender under the Gender Recognition Act. The decision risks undermining the UK’s equality law framework and marks a troubling regression in gender rights.
Continue reading >>Patents and the Right to a Healthy Environment
How may patent law contribute to or hinder the technologies and innovation needed to conserve a healthy environment? This brief contribution seeks to make two points in this respect. The first is that the role patent law can play on its own should not be overestimated. The second is that future studies in this direction should take an innovation systems approach. While neither point is new, I believe connecting them and building on key publications that first expressed them serves as a useful agenda for future research in this field.
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“The Existence of the ICC Is Largely Due to the Traditions and Experiences of Latin American Countries”
In an exclusive interview, our partner Agenda Estado de Derecho spoke with Osvaldo Zavala Giler, the first Latin American to assume the position of Registrar of the International Criminal Court, who grants us access to the fascinating and challenging world of international criminal justice. From the operational core of the Court, Zavala leads efforts to ensure that this institution, responsible for adjudicating the most atrocious crimes, operates effectively within an increasingly complex global landscape.
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Copyright Moral Rights Protection and Environmental Sustainability
When we talk about intellectual property (IP) and sustainability, we rarely pay attention to the moral rights of authors. However, it is important to assess these ‘authors-only’ rights in a world where copyright is often used as a tool to maximise corporate profits. In terms of sustainable development, moral rights can both promote and hinder environmental, social and cultural sustainability in the creative industries. However, their relationship with sustainable development is not straightforward. This blog post looks at some of the key issues that link the protection of moral rights in copyright to sustainable development and the circular economy.
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In the Name of Primacy
In 1973, Pierre Pescatore noted that “[P]rimacy is an ‘existential requirement’ of EU law”. The Opinion of AG Spielmann in Case C-448/23 (Commission v. Poland), delivered on 11 March 2025, opens with this harsh observation. His difficult task is to frame in legal terms the two essentially political rulings delivered by the Polish Constitutional Tribunal in 2021, where – notoriously – the “captured” domestic court refused to adhere to the most basic principles governing the relationship between national and EU law. This requires adjustments in the current vocabulary of the Luxembourg judges.
Continue reading >>Big Tech Antitrust Scrutiny Across the Atlantic
As Europeans await the European Commission’s enforcement of new tech rules, recent developments in the U.S. remind us that Big Tech scrutiny has been a transatlantic concern. On April 14, 2025, a trial began at the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, where the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is challenging Meta’s acquisitions of WhatsApp and Instagram under U.S. antitrust laws. This landmark case raises novel legal issues about mergers that were previously cleared a decade ago and highlights U.S. enforcers’ continued efforts to curb Big Tech power.
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Reforming the Legislature in Bangladesh
Bangladesh’s political journey since gaining independence in 1971 has shifted back and forth between democratic aspirations and periods of authoritarian rule. The country now stands at a crossroads again after its authoritarian leader, Sheikh Hasina, was ousted after popular protests last year. Tasked with the mandate of “rebooting democracy”, the Constitutional Reform Commission has proposed sweeping changes, including restructuring the legislature from a parliamentary to a semi-parliamentary system with moderation.
Continue reading >>Greenifying Copyright
Upcycling has become one of the trendiest buzzwords for people with a sustainability-oriented mindset. While the term might refer to various forms of recollection, improvement and reuse of data or (raw) materials, this post adopts a narrower focus. It is limited solely to reviewing how upcycling might be approached from a copyright perspective.
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Upcycling, the Ongoing Battle
In recent years, upcycling has seen a surge in popularity thanks to its positive impact on sustainability and the circular economy due to consumers’ increasing attention to the environment. As a result, individuals, artisans, and small companies have enthusiastically embraced the practice as a central part of their activities and a way to reduce waste. However, with fame often comes unwanted attention, and the growth of upcycling practices has led to various legal challenges against independent upcyclers based on the argument that their products violate intellectual property (IP) rights.
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The Opposition Erdoğan Can Tolerate
President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is remaking Turkey’s opposition – not by defeating it outright, but by replacing it. His latest strategy appears to sideline the secular Republican People’s Party (CHP) and elevate the pro-Kurdish Peoples’ Equality and Democracy Party (DEM) as a more fragmented, controllable rival. This calculated manoeuvre could fracture the anti-Erdoğan bloc ahead of the 2028 elections while projecting an image of democratic pluralism.
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Governing in the Shadow of Indictments
Israel has been experiencing fierce conflicts between the Prime Minister and the government on the one hand and prominent public officials on the other. Two such conflicts have occupied the public discourse in recent weeks: the conflict between the government and both the Attorney General (Gali Barahav-Miara) and the head of the internal security service (Ronen Bar). In both cases, the government's attempt to remove these officials from office has run into legal difficulties, grounded in accusations concerning conflict of interest, which stem from two opposing principles within administrative law.
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Money, Trust and Tools
Verfassungsblog faces the same challenges as any independent, non-profit, and community-led publication platform committed to Diamond Open Access (DOA). Recently, two projects were launched to strengthen DOA as a publishing model across borders and with a global reach. I attended the kick-off conference in Madrid to find out what we can learn from their approach, how we can benefit from their results and in what ways we can get involved to help shape the future of academic publishing.
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Fashion Upcycling and the Human Right to a Healthy Environment
With new collections each season, the fashion industry produces a highly problematic fashion garbage heap every year. Circular economy projects seeking to produce “new” garments by reworking second hand and unsold fashion items have particular societal value against this background. Evidently, legal solutions that support fashion reuse have particular relevance in the light of these goals.
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“Legal Empowerment Can Be Transformative”
How can judicial independence be strengthened in a world of increasing political and economic pressures? In this interview, Margaret Satterthwaite explores innovative solutions and challenges facing justice systems in Latin America and beyond.
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The Premise of Good Faith in Platform Regulation
The DSA has been in force for over a year now. Hardly any other piece of European legislation has recently provoked so many heated debates, is raising so many fundamental questions and has been adopted so quickly. A key mechanism of the DSA is the principle of supervised self-regulation. In light of current geopolitical shifts and the rapid politicization of major online platforms, the DSA operates in a significantly different context – one the European legislator did not fully anticipate. European enforcers must adapt, the legislator should reconsider its approach.
Continue reading >>Fast Fashion, Slow Transition
In the new ultra-fast fashion era, garment production cycles are accelerated to new heights, while the quality of the garments deteriorates. Key characteristics of the industry are its reliance on cheap manufacturing, overconsumption and short-lived garment use. This blog post will set out who is responsible for the protection of human rights from climate change within the textile industry. In a second step, this blog post aims to analyse the EU Strategy, focusing on the intersection between environmental and social rights in the textile industry.
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“Those with the Guns Are the Last to Starve”
Five Questions to Tom Dannenbaum
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The U.S. President’s Electoral Power Play
On March 25, President Trump signed an executive order (EO) purporting to restructure American election administration. The ironically titled “Preserving and Protecting the Integrity of American Elections” EO sets out to, among other things, require those registering to vote in federal elections to present documentary proof of citizenship, and threatens to penalize states that accept late arriving ballots (i.e., mail ballots that are sent prior to, yet not received until after, Election Day). The EO has several legal deficiencies and much of it should be invalidated by the federal judiciary.
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The Struggle Is Now
The appeal to future generations as a means to legitimize climate litigation is growing. The idea of advocating for the rights of future generations is closely linked to the recognition of the human right to a healthy environment. However, this appeal – and the conceptual connection it entails –raises various questions. While protecting the planet for future generations is crucial, the legal invocation of future generations remains unclear and inconsistent.
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Tackling the Union’s “Orbán Problem” Now
The EU is facing an “Orbán problem”. That much is clear. The Hungarian government not only pursues an illiberal domestic agenda that violates the Union’s values in Article 2 TEU, but also cultivates close ties with autocratic regimes abroad, particularly with Russia. The Hungarian government consistently uses its veto powers to block Ukrainian military aid and dilute sanctions against Russia. The Commission should submit a new proposal under Article 7(2) TEU focusing on breaches of solidarity and threats to the Union’s security.
Continue reading >>Gaming Procedure, Gutting Due Process
The Trump administration has admitted that sending Abrego Garcia to a supermax prison in El Salvador known for human rights abuses was an “administrative error” but contends before the U.S. Supreme Court that there is nothing a federal court can do about that. As I shall explain, the Solicitor General’s argument ultimately rests on the claim that the president who frequently boasts about his abilities as a deal maker is a lousy negotiator.
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How Hungary’s Withdrawal from the International Criminal Court Affects the Credibility of the European Union
Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán launched another attack on the rules-based world order. He invited Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is under an arrest warrant of the International Criminal Court (ICC) for allegations of war crimes and crimes against humanity, for a state visit to Budapest. On this occasion, Orbán announced Hungary’s withdrawal from the ICC, which he defined as “a politically biased” institution. With this move, Hungary undermines the EU’s long-standing and consolidated support for the ICC.
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Dodik’s Defiant Secessionist Constitution
The new Draft Constitution, passed by the National Assembly of Republika Srpska on March 13, 2025, represents the culmination of the tensions between the sub-national entity and the central government of BiH. The Draft Constitution is more than an attempt to shield Republika Srpska President Milorad Dodik from criminal responsibility in light of his active arrest warrant. Instead, the sweeping changes introduced in the Draft Constitution mark one of the most drastic attempts to date to use legal reform to defy the constitutional order and institutions of BiH.
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The Tipping Point in BiH’s Constitutional Struggle
On 26 February, the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina sentenced the President of the Republic of Srpska, Milorad Dodik, to one year in prison, with an additional six-year prohibition from holding office. Dodik was found guilty of failing to comply with the decisions of the High Representative in BiH, the office instituted in Annex 10 of the Dayton Peace Agreement. The verdict marks the conclusion of the ongoing tensions between Milorad Dodik and the Office of HR, reflecting broader calls of the former for a return to the “original Dayton”.
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When Guidance Becomes Overreach
From 2 August 2025, providers of so-called “General Purpose AI” (GPAI) models will face far-reaching obligations under the EU’s AI Act. To demonstrate compliance, the AI Act allows providers to rely on a “Code of Practice”, currently being drafted by over 1000 stakeholders under the auspices of the AI Office, and expected to be adopted by the European Commission before August 2025. This post critically examines the third draft of the Code of Practice.
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Why Recognizing the Right to a Healthy Environment Would Strengthen the Environmental Human Rights Framework under the European Convention on Human Rights
The ECtHR lacks a mandate for general measures aimed at redressing or preventing environmental harm as such. Only the introduction of the environment as the object of human rights protection, through the Right to a Healthy Environment, could trigger the necessary conceptual shift and legitimise the Court and the CoE Committee of Ministers to require member States to take measures such as mitigation of environmental risks and ecological redress.
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Enforcing the Law of Democracy
It was a political bombshell. On Monday, 31 March 2025, Marine Le Pen, leader of the far-right party Rassemblement National (National Rally) in France, was convicted of misappropriation of public funds in the so-called “parliamentary assistants” case. The judgment is marked by an unusual degree of judicial creativity, particularly in its underlying conception of democracy, which may be understood through the lens of militant democracy. Although it does not constitute a political judgment in the traditional, partisan sense, its constitutional and symbolic significance is substantial—and the backlash it has provoked against the judiciary is a cause for concern.
Continue reading >>Dictatorship of the Court vs. Will of the People?
On March 31st, French politician Marine Le Pen was convicted for embe-zzlement of public funds – and sentenced to ineligibility to run for office for five years, effective immediately. Since then, the RN incessantly gathered outrage, calling out the “tyranny of judges” and claiming that the verdict end-angers democracy. After a week, it’s time to take a closer look at “the scandal”. Spoiler alert: There is no “political death” that might be the fault of a court – if at all, it was a (easily avoidable) suicide.
Continue reading >>Der Unterwerfung widerstehen
Meine Antworten an die US-Grenzbeamten
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The Status of the Right to a Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment Under Customary International Law
The recognition of a right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment remains contested under customary international law. Some view recent UN resolutions as evidence of its emergence, while others argue they merely reinforce existing obligations. The Human Rights Council and General Assembly have acknowledged this right, but states differ on its legal impact. As the International Court of Justice examines the issue, the focus is shifting from recognition to implementation, with institutions now working to monitor and enforce environmental human rights.
Continue reading >>Frozen Russian State Assets
In February 2022, a coalition of states including all G7 economies froze approximately US$300 billion in Russian state assets. Over the past three years, debates have been unfolding as to how these funds can be used to enforce Russia’s obligation to pay reparations to Ukraine. With the prospect of EU sanctions unravelling in July 2025, legal debates over countermeasures and state immunities appear to be ceding stage to concerns over whether CBR assets ought to be ring-fenced in a separate fund to keep it out of Russia’s reach.
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Intellectual Property and the Human Right to a Healthy Environment
With the effects of climate change escalating, there has been a notable increase in discussions about the, at first glance, not obvious impact of IP protection on environmental sustainability. At the same time, considerations of human and fundamental rights in the context of IP protection are increasingly shaping the legal discourse. Given these two major trends in IP law – growing attention to environmental sustainability as well as to human and fundamental rights – it seems that the time is ripe to explore what the human right to a healthy environment might mean for IP.
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Judicial Harassment in Turkey
The arrest of the opposition’s presidential frontrunner Ekrem İmamoğlu marks a historic turning point for Turkey. It is emblematic of Turkey’s shift from "competitive authoritarianism" towards "full authoritarianism" or a weak form of fascism, demanding immediate and preventive intervention by the European Court of Human Rights. Most importantly, retrospective assessments of the recent events in Turkey are insufficient at this point. It is crucial to invoke Article 18 and the “chilling effect” doctrine before irreparable political damage occurs.
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How Hungary’s Pride Ban Tests the EU’s Commitment to Democracy
On March 18, 2025, the Hungarian Parliament passed legislation aimed at protecting children from assemblies that promote homosexuality. Although the amendment imposes general limitations on freedom of assembly, it is commonly understood as a ban on the LGBTQ+ Pride march, just ahead of the 30th anniversary in 2025. The new law purposefully violates European human rights standards on freedom of assembly and LGBTQ+ rights, as well as fundamental values of the European Union, such as the rule of law and democracy (Article 2 TEU).
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Romanian Militant Democracy in Action
On March 11, 2025, the Romanian Constitutional Court definitively barred far-right extremist Călin Georgescu from running as a candidate in the upcoming presidential election. This decision represents the culmination of a series of landmark decisions through which the Court has strengthened the principle of militant democracy. Moreover, the Court has affirmed the EU and NATO membership as a central component of Romania’s democracy and rule of law, shielding it from subversion by the principles of non-regression and militant democracy.
Continue reading >>Simone Rozès (née Ludwig)
Simone Rozès was a pioneering French jurist who left a lasting impact on the French judicial system and beyond. Her decade-spanning career was marked by her many prestigious positions and her commitment to justice. However, as a woman in the mid-20th century, she also faced various challenges, including overcoming gender barriers within the judiciary.
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Assisted Suicide the Italian Way
More than 5 years ago, the Italian Constitutional Court ruled that assisted suicide must be permitted under specific conditions. Yet, Parliament’s inability to legislate has left this right in legal limbo. Now, recent regional actions could break the deadlock. The Italian region of Tuscany is setting an example for other sub-national legislatures to pass laws on the matter. This blog post argues that constitutional courts, and the ItCC in particular, should not stifle this kind of activism – especially when it steps in to uphold judicial mandates that the national legislature refuses to enforce.
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The Executive’s Responsibility for the Constitution
Who is responsible for safeguarding the constitution? Traditionally, constitutional lawyers have focused on the courts. But the alarming actions of Trump 2.0 and democratic backsliding across the world suggests we should think far more about the role of the executive. The UK House of Lords Constitution Committee (“the Committee”) has recently published a report on Executive oversight and responsibility for the UK constitution, which emphasizes institutions, in particular the civil service, as a solution the threats to constitutional governance posed but the executive. But this may be wishful thinking.
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Silencing Greenpeace
In a stark example of a Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation (SLAPP), a United States (US) state court compelled Greenpeace to pay hundreds of millions of dollars for facilitating trespass, conversion, nuisance, defamation, and civil conspiracy. The EU has correctly recognized the harm posed by SLAPPs in so far that they diminish civil society’s capacity to represent under- or unrepresented interest groups, and leverage civil law proceedings to stifle dissent in favor of the economically and politically powerful. Now, we will see if the Anti-SLAPP Directive is robust enough to protect European civil society actors from abusive lawsuits.
Continue reading >>Wie die Trump-Regierung Wissensinstitutionen angreift
Zeit für Mut – und Widerstand
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The Trump Administration’s Attack on Knowledge Institutions
Time for courage – and resistance
Continue reading >>The Arrest of Istanbul’s Mayor is Textbook Lawfare
On March 19, 2025, police arrested Istanbul Mayor Ekrem İmamoğlu on corruption and terrorism charges. Four days later, on March 23, a judge ordered him to prison pending trial. İmamoğlu is not only the mayor of Istanbul, a position he has held by repeatedly defeating Erdoğan-backed candidates, but also widely regarded as the opposition’s most prominent and promising candidate to challenge Erdoğan in a presidential election. That is why the lawfare waged against him, culminating in his pre-trial detention, is broadly viewed as an attempt by the ruling party to eliminate Turkey’s rising opposition and further consolidate its one-party rule.
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The White Paper Within the Institutional Constraints
The European Commission’s Joint White Paper on European Defence, together with the ReArm Europe Plan; now “quietly rebranded” as “Readiness 2030”, signals a transformative moment in the European Union’s approach to security. Nevertheless, this strategic shift remains limited to short-term measures, as more permanent frameworks are constrained by lack of political will and institutional obstacles. If not addressed, this will perpetuate a short-term vision that is not capable of addressing also broader hybrid threats to democratic governance and societal cohesion.
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Everything Comes at a Price
The sale of Union citizenship, which is at the heart of the case against Malta currently pending before the ECJ, has been the subject of feverish writing. With the Court’s judgment nearing, this short blogpost will, however, not opine on what the judgment should be. Instead, it considers the potential effects of a judgment that endorses the (ill-conceived) Opinion of AG Collins that Malta’s nationality by investment scheme does not conflict with EU law.
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The Price of Getting Duterte
The arrest and transfer of Rodrigo Duterte to the ICC was certainly good news for the heavily beleaguered Court. But the price of getting Duterte could be considerable. The manifest entanglement with Philippine politics is likely to harden Southeast Asian skepticism towards international criminal justice. Existing fears of external politicization are enhanced with a scenario of internal political turmoil, reinforcing Southeast Asian hesitation toward the ICC.
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Stopping Autocratic Legalism in America – Before It Is Too Late
President Donald Trump’s recent speech to the Department of Justice was meant as a declaration of war against lawyers. His words made clear that the most effective way to consolidate autocracy is by systematically dismantling the independent centers of power that support a healthy democracy, including the independent public prosecutor. As the Executive Orders targeting law firms underscore: the entire legal profession is next. This is no coincidence.
Continue reading >>From Backlog to Breakdown
Albania’s Vetting Commission recently concluded its mandate, marking a pivotal moment in the country’s judicial reform effort. Since 2016, Albania has enacted significant constitutional amendments aimed at comprehensive reforms. The results of these reforms are now obvious, with notable improvements in the judiciary’s anti-corruption efforts. However, the process itself and some interim decisions have had a detrimental effect on the efficiency of the judicial system, that is now threatening to undermine the outcome of reforms unless urgent measures are taken.
Continue reading >>Walking Out on Hungary
As the EU steps up its efforts to fund the defence of Europe, Hungary sticks to its policy of undermining those efforts whenever it can. Given that a Member State cannot be expelled from the EU, the Member States should simultaneously withdraw from the EU Treaties under Article 50 TEU and concurrently sign up to new EU Treaties without Hungary. Only this way could the EU effectively stand up to Russia, introduce important Treaty changes, and finally overcome tolerating Putin’s allies within the EU. Perhaps the Hungarian people would eventually join as well.
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A Constitutional Crisis? Maybe. A Constitutional Revolution? Likely.
Crisis rhetoric has become pervasive in the United States and Israel, although much of it is a hyperbolic response to the polarization currently dominating these nations’ politics. What seems clearer to us is that a process is underway in both countries that may very well culminate in a constitutional revolution. Such a development might or might not be deemed crisis-worthy, but it would mean that something profoundly significant had changed in the way the business of governing is conducted in each nation.
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Manufacturing Integration
Advocate General Tamara Ćapeta recently concluded that Denmark’s so-called Ghetto Law constitutes direct discrimination based on ethnic origin and hence a violation of the Race Equality Directive. This blog highlights the harmful role of the integration narrative underlying the law and other coercive measures addressed towards “non-Western” Danes and non-Danes and the broader implications of the present case for challenging stereotypes embedded in integration policies and practices.
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The Death Knell for American Free Speech Tradition
In a case that has received global attention and reproach, Mahmoud Khalil, a lawful permanent resident of the United States and recent graduate of Columbia University (another target of the Trump administration’s ire), was arrested on 8 March by Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents in front of his apartment in New York and subsequently transferred to a detention facility in Louisiana. In this blog post, my aim is to show that the case of Mr. Khalil implicates perhaps the most sacrosanct of American constitutional rights: free speech.
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The EU’s Enduring Ethical Deficit in the Aftermath of Huawei
It took over two decades and several high-profile ethical scandals for the main EU institutions to finally agree on the Interinstitutional Body for Ethical Standards. A year later, this ethics body is nowhere to be found, largely blocked by the EPP. While Belgian prosecutors accuse Huawei of lobbying practices involving free football tickets, lavish gifts, and even all-expenses-paid trips to China, the unfolding scandal provides tangible proof of the inadequacy of the ethical framework, notwithstanding the much-acclaimed post-Qatargate reforms.
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Restoring Polish Judicial Independence
Restoring the Polish rule of law without doing more damage to it is a vexing challenge. Building Back Better becomes even more complex when the current president – part of the autocratic Law and Justice (PiS) party, which lost the previous elections – refuses to sign off on any law. Yet few would have expected the Venice Commission (VC), of all institutions, to make things even more complicated. This contribution first tracks the state of play in Poland following the VC Opinions of October 2024 and December 2024. Given the central role of the VC’s thinking in Polish efforts to find a way out, it then goes on to critique the Opinions on legal and strategic grounds before proposing an alternative route.
Continue reading >>Regulating Social Media for Teenagers
Calls for social media age restrictions are growing in several EU Member States, aligning with broader discussions in Brussels about protecting consumers against ‘addictive’ online services. Recently, Australia approved a social media ban for those under 16, adding momentum to these debates. However, while such restrictions aim to protect children, defining ‘social media’ presents significant challenges that could make a ban ineffective or even counterproductive.
Continue reading >>International Law Under Pressure
In this blog post, we document and analyse the numerous apparent breaches of international law that have occurred within the first six weeks of the 2025 Trump administration. What began as an informal discussion at the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law has evolved into this analytical overview. We believe this documentation serves both academic purposes and potentially supports future legal proceedings. While defenders of these actions will undoubtedly offer justifications for what we identify as clear breaches of international law, our analysis aims to provide an assessment based on established international legal principles.
Continue reading >>The Politics of Digital Erasure
The removal of over 2,000 datasets from data.gov – specifically from government agencies in energy, environment, and NASA – reveals critical questions about the governance of digital information infrastructure and mechanisms of information control. This essay examines how these changes not only affect American governance but also global research networks that depend on U.S. federal data resources, and what these developments might mean for digital governance worldwide.
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„Ein Katalysator für die europäische Identität“
Fünf Fragen an Aurore Gaillet
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Efficiency, but at What Cost
The Commission’s proposal to reform the EU’s legal framework on return is presented as a necessary step to establish a “clear, modern, simplified [system of] […] common rules for managing returns effectively.” This blog post examines whether the proposal lives up to this objective. It assesses the extent to which the proposed changes address the deficits that currently hamper returns and illustrates how the reform would undermine the safeguards of the individuals concerned.
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Respekt für das Völkerrecht
Die Beachtung des Völkerrechts ist zur Erhaltung und Wiederherstellung des Weltfriedens in der derzeitigen Lage wichtiger denn je. Das gilt zumal für Deutschland. Daher mahnen wir die Einhaltung der von der Bundesrepublik übernommenen völkerrechtlichen Verpflichtungen an. Gerade in einer Zeit, in der das Völkerrecht von mächtigen Staaten gebrochen wird, appellieren wir eindringlich an Entscheidungsträger in Bund und Ländern, diese Errungenschaft nicht aufs Spiel zu setzen.
Continue reading >>Respect for International Law
Observance of international law is more important than ever in the current situation in order to maintain and restore world peace. This is especially true for Germany. We call for compliance with Germany’s obligations under international law. Especially at a time when international law is being broken by powerful states, we urgently appeal to decision-makers at federal and state levels not to jeopardize Germany’s commitment to international law.
Continue reading >>Simplification Promised, Uncertainty Delivered
The EU’s Green Deal had an ambitious goal: to make Europe the world’s first climate-neutral continent. Now, the Commission shifted its focus to instruments like the ‘Clean Industrial Deal’ and prioritizes the EU’s competitiveness: It proposes to drastically cut back core Green Deal instruments in the so-called ‘Omnibus Packages’. This blog post will concentrate on the changes proposed in the field of sustainability reporting in the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive and show why the Omnibus Packages now impose substantial uncertainty on companies.
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Sliding into Quasi-Fascism?
Many commentators label the second Trump administration authoritarian or right populist, but shun fascist as rhetorical overreach. They are currently correct. Such hesitation, however, is on less sure footing for those who prognosticate that the executive will attempt to construct a regime claiming the right to unchecked, continuing power. Substantial continuation of constitutional and democratic norms, which they assume, is far from guaranteed. I will explain why the Trump presidency already displays characteristics that render reasonably possible its morphing into a regime appropriately characterized as fascist or, at least, quasi-fascist.
Continue reading >>From Hugs to Handcuffs
On 27 February, the Mexican government transferred 29 alleged drug lords to the US. Instead of undergoing the due process required for extradition, they were simply removed of their cells, put on a plane and sent to the USA. This act was termed a “deliver” by Mexico, while the US called it a “expulsion”. This is not just a semantic issue. While combating organised crime is crucial, by bypassing the rules for extradition, Mexico disregarded the rule of law and set a dangerous precedent for sovereignty and the protection of fundamental rights.
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Symbols that Keep Us Apart
In a significant development for Bosnia and Herzegovina, in February 2025, the Constitutional Court suspended the controversial Emblem Law Amendments allowing the use of foreign state symbols alongside the symbols of Republika Srpska in public institutions and official documents. This is one of the latest legal maneuvers challenging the constitutional framework established by the Dayton Peace Agreement. Moreover, it highlights Republika Srpska’s ongoing efforts to redefine its relationship with the central state, risking deepening ethnic divisions.
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Anonymity and Surveillance, Creativity and Copyright
The emergence of digital networks over the past decades has presented a problem for copyright exploiters. Thus, they resorted to strategic enforcement targeting individual users. However, the users would often remain anonymous due to the lack of access to traffic data revealing their identity. But the decision in La Quadrature du Net II – permitting retention and disclosure of traffic data for minor offences – has the adverse effect: it incentivises enforcement strategies targeting users and requiring platforms to hand over such data.
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Left Behind
The recently introduced EU Omnibus package aims at “simplifying” corporate sustainability reporting and due diligence requirements envisaged under the European Green Deal. Reflecting on its wider effects on sustainability and human rights for the Global South, this article argues that the reform overlooks the realities of informal economies and risks diminishing the EU’s credibility as the global forerunner for corporate governance.
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Leaked and Loaded
Bus stops all around Europe are filling with colourful advertisements of NextGenerationEU. This is your tax euros at work seeking to convince citizens that the flagship program of President von der Leyen’s first term has been an unqualified success. The leaked drafts on the EU’s next MFF verify that the Commission’s plan mimics the features of the NGEU. This model should be subjected to critical assessment, as it is ill-suited to addressing geopolitical challenges facing the EU today.
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„Das ist gespenstisches Verfassungsrecht“
Fünf Fragen an Florian Meinel
Continue reading >>Judges Under Stress and the Duty to Resist
The Trump administration is engaged in a battle over the “mode of rule” of the American society. Although the battle is not primarily directed against the courts, judges may quickly get involved. Many see them as a primary defense of the liberal order. Proponents of the attacks on the established order argue that the judges overstep their mandate if they curb the power of the presidency. Elon Musk has even called for impeachment and removal of troublesome judges. Is there anything US judges can learn from the experience of their German colleagues in the 1930’s?
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Romanian Militant Democracy and the Time Machine
Romania was recently rocked by the annulment of presidential elections in December 2024, a crisis stifled by the March 2025 invalidation of Georgescu’s candidacy in do-over elections. Mr. Georgescu, an ultranationalist firebrand, presents himself in a MAGA-style as the tribune of “the People” and a warrior against a “Soros-driven” elite conspiracy. Europhile opponents present the invalidations as valiant examples of militant democracy and rule of law in action. I argue that the story is both simpler and more complex, partly a local variant of “authoritarian liberalism”, partly an example of idiosyncratic Eastern traditions of the RoL in Euro-friendly attire.
Continue reading >>The Heidelberg Declaration on Transforming Global Meat Governance
Meat is at the center of interrelated environmental and public health crises: climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, pandemics, food insecurity, unhealthy and unsustainable diets, and institutionalized animal suffering. While eating or not eating meat has traditionally been seen as a private choice, it is increasingly becoming a public and political issue, as the social, ecological, and ethical costs of industrialized meat production are becoming more visible and prominent. Scientific evidence is piling indicating the need for a sustainable food system and dietary transitions away from animal-based foods.
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A PR Stunt Over Accountability
In the previous Law and Justice administration, the Public Prosecutor’s Office (PPO) had been significantly compromised. Under the Prosecutor General Ziobro, it systemically pursued political and business opponents, quashed dissent, and silenced critical voices. Well over a year has passed since these dark times have officially ended. Poland’s new government has promised to bring justice to the victims and assure accountability for the prosecutors. The Open Dialogue Foundation has analysed the nation-wide audit of the PPO’s cases and concluded – the reality is disappointing.
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Balancing on the Edge of Loyalty and Legality
At the end of 2024, the current Dutch government proposed new legislation in the shape of the “asylum crisis measures legislation” and a “two-status-system legislation”. Through advisory reports by the Council for the Judiciary, the broader public was properly introduced to the government’s plans. The reports strongly urge the government not to pursue these proposals for their potential consequences on the judiciary and implementation of the new EU Asylum Pact. Although some of these individual measures may be legal, a holistic approach shows that it is the sum of these parts that finds itself at odds with EU law, balancing on the edge of loyalty and legality.
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Cross-Border Data Flows and India’s Digital Sovereignty
India’s data protection framework has been in the making for over a decade. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act was passed by Parliament in 2023, and the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules were released in January 2025 for public consultation. In this piece, I argue that the draft Rules do little to clarify India’s murky position on cross-border data flows. The ambiguous wording of the text grants unfettered discretion to the executive in operationalizing the localization mandate. Moreover, the lack of legislative protections for citizen privacy, coupled with missed opportunities to establish robust institutional frameworks undermines India’s own data diplomacy project.
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Vying for the Scales
One year after the Digital Services Act (DSA) introduced new rules for content moderation, questions remain about their implementation. While platforms must cover the costs of out-of-court dispute resolution, concerns arise over the independence of certified bodies like Appeals Centre Europe (ACE). Despite being accredited by the Irish regulator as independent, ACE has financial and structural ties to Meta, raising questions about its role in the moderation ecosystem. The article examines whether ACE’s certification aligns with the DSA’s independence requirements and what this means for the future of platform accountability in Europe.
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The Unbearable Lightness of the Unitary Executive Theory
Through the unlawful firing of National Labor Relations Board member Gwynne Wilcox and a February 18 executive order, entitled “Ensuring Accountability for All Agencies,” President Donald J. Trump is trying to eliminate the independence of independent regulatory agencies. President Trump’s campaign against agency independence is part of his undisguised effort to effectuate a radical dismantling of our checks-and-balances system without actually amending the U.S. Constitution.
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The End of NATO As We Know It
It is frighteningly easy to picture a situation in which President Trump steps off a plane and declares: “I have a paper signed by Mister Putin, there will be peace for our time.” When Neville Chamberlain declared “peace for our time” on 30 September 1938, the world was at war only one year later. Should Russia choose to test the true value of Article 5 NATO-Treaty, this would be the ultimate test for NATO. Europe needs to get serious about acquiring its own nuclear deterrent, entirely independent of the USA.
Continue reading >>They Not Like Us
On 13 February 2025, AG Ćapeta delivered a milestone opinion on racial discrimination and migration in the EU when she found the Danish ‘Ghetto Law’ in violation of the Race and Ethnic Equality Directive. She determined that the differentiation between “Western” and “non-Western” immigrants and their descendants in the Danish legislation creates a perceived “ethnic ‘Other’” vis-à-vis the majority population that falls under the anti-discrimination ground of “ethnic origin”. I will explain how her opinion challenges this form of legalized ‘othering’ in migration law, based on the underlying sentiment of ‘us’ vs. ‘them’, as it goes against Art. 2 TEU and the vision of a democratic, tolerant, and anti-racist European society.
Continue reading >>Divide and Rule
Last week, Italy’s judiciary went on strike. While clashes between judges and politicians are nothing new in Italy, this latest reform raises concerns that go beyond routine legal disputes. Though not a radical overhaul, the changes could significantly impact judicial independence and the separation of powers.
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Wenn das Recht versagt, folgt der Krieg
Über eine einfache, aber grundlegende Forderung.
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Paying Judges Properly
On 22 February, several thousand marched in Budapest for an independent judiciary, including fair pay for judges. Three days later, the CJEU issued a decision in Joined Cases C‑146/23 and C‑374/23, setting out the EU law criteria for judges’ remuneration. The decision sets general minimum criteria for the remuneration of judges to guarantee their independence and is highly relevant for Hungary, where the salary pathway for judges is not set by law, it is not judicially enforceable, and the entire system lacks foreseeability.
Continue reading >>A European Army and Three Difficult Choices
J.D. Vance shocked Europe with his speech, signalling a diminishing sense of shared values between the U.S. and Europe. The last Friday’s press conference in Washington further confirmed that America’s commitment as the leader of the free world has disappeared. Consequently, for a "European army", the MSs will have to make three difficult decisions beyond the questions of legal feasibility under the Treaties. A complementary force involving willing MSs under intergovernmental decision-making appears the most realistic path for common territorial defence, while concerns regarding democratic decision-making remain.
Continue reading >>Funding Europe’s Defence
History is on the move. In just a couple of weeks, Europe has seen its security architecture tested as never before since World War II. Now, the European Union must demonstrate its ability to take control of its own destiny and turn the vision of a common European defence into reality. With ReArm Europe, the Union wants to “meet the moment” and affirm that it is “ready to assume its responsibilities”. While the plan represents a crucial first step towards strengthening European defence, it does not introduce any groundbreaking measures. Its predominant reliance on national defence spending constitutes an important limitation.
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Judicial Paternalism and Free Speech in India
The Indian Supreme Court has recently decided two cases pertaining to the speech acts of two different individuals—a podcaster and a legislator of the Legislative Council of the State of Bihar. In both cases, the Court chose to reprimand the individuals for their ‘indecent’ and ‘unparliamentary conduct’ and also sanctioned punishments upon them, without any a priori determination of whether their speech acts, in any manner, violated the limits of the right to free speech as guaranteed under the Indian Constitution. The reprimand and the sanction, I argue, emerged from the Court’s false belief that it is tasked to school the citizens on the appropriate and correct ways of using their speech rights.
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Fast-Tracking Ukraine
Whatever the outcome of the current crisis, Ukraine needs to join the European Union as fast as possible. Neither Trump nor Putin can veto this. The EU, for long lukewarm about widening and deepening, must take rapid steps to facilitate Ukraine’s entry. This will involve revising the terms and conditions of accession. Although Volodymr Zelensky has seen EU membership as second best to NATO, he well knows that his country’s sovereignty now depends on the European Union. Enlargement is a geostrategic investment in peace, security, stability and prosperity.
Continue reading >>From the EU-Belarus Border to Strasbourg
On 12 February 2025 the ECtHR considered for the first time the interpretation of the Convention in the context of so-called ‘migrant instrumentalisation’ or ‘hybrid attacks’, allegedly orchestrated by the Belarusian regime after the EU imposed sanctions on Minsk. This contribution critically reviews the key arguments of the respondent governments with respect to the interpretation of Art. 3 ECHR and Art. 4 Prot. 4 ECHR and considers the relationship between the two in the particular context.
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Ángela de Oliveira Cézar de Costa
Ángela de Oliveira Cézar de Costa (1860-1940) was a pioneer in the realms of international pacifism and “female diplomacy” during the late 19th and early 20th century – and yet she remains standing in the shadow of a statue she had commissioned: the Christ in the Andes is far better known than her own name.
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Daylight
The Right-Wing Majority Between Possibility and Reality
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Judicial Independence and the EU-Switzerland Framework Treaty
The European Union is about to finalise a package of sectoral treaties with Switzerland. Its goal is to institutionalise five existing treaties and to conclude three new ones. At the core of these agreements lies the dispute settlement mechanism, modelled after the EU’s agreements with the post-Soviet states of Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. This mechanism would grant the European Commission the unilateral right to bring Switzerland before an ‘arbitration tribunal’.
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Reciprocity in Trade?
Trump’s plans to impose "reciprocal" tariffs, announced in a Memorandum of 13 February, fundamentally contradict the existing rules of the world trade order, in particular the USA's tariff obligations and the principle of providing the same benefits to all imports and exports – known as the most-favoured nation (MFN) treatment. The absence of a bolder protest against this flagrant disregard of the law might be due to a shared understanding that the existing rules-based international economic order is in a deplorable state. The crucial question, therefore, is whether we should quietly accept its final abolition by someone with the power to do so, or rather set about repairing it. Now, tariffs may be a very mundane matter. But what is at stake here is the more general and fundamental question of international law today: how do we deal with rules that were created in better times and are now in danger of disintegrating?
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A Glimpse of Hope for the Rohingya
On Thursday, 13 February 2025, a federal criminal court in Buenos Aires, Argentina, took a significant step toward international criminal accountability by issuing arrests warrants for Senior General Min Aung Hlaing and 24 other Myanmar military officials. This marks the first public arrest warrants to be issued against the Myanmar military in a universal jurisdiction case. This legal development represents a rare moment of hope for the roughly one million Rohingya forced to live in refugee camps in Bangladesh.
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The Dismissal of the Romanian Prosecutors Annulment Action
In the latest chapter of the EU rule of law saga, the General Court dismissed an annulment action lodged by an association of Romanian prosecutors, which challenged the termination of the Cooperation and Verification Mechanism in 2023, due to lack of direct concern. We argue that a too-narrow view of the issue does not reflect the rule of law situation in the country, including open non-compliance with the CJEU’s own rulings, and leads to several undesired consequences.
Continue reading >>Reading Project 2025 as a Manifesto
Manifestos have very often prefigured constitutional crisis, revolution, the overthrowing of legal orders, and set the terms of what follows. Project 2025, or the 2025 Presidential Transition Project, can be read as a manifesto, and one that is now well on its way to being implemented. Examining it through the lens of constitution (re)making sets out some of the terms in which it could be opposed, including by counter-manifesto.
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A Power Grab Is Not a Constitutional Theory
Lawyers love legal theories. President Trump’s unprecedented executive actions have reignited interest in theories about the U.S. Constitution, especially conservative ones. Is he working with an extreme conception of the unified executive theory, a strong version of “originalist” or even “post-originalist” legal reasoning, or will the “political question doctrine” dominate? These debates are fascinating, but they strike me as pointless. Why? Because Trump’s supporters are not deploying them in good faith. Rather, these theories are being used as rhetorical maneuvers to dress up a power grab in theoretical garb.
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Trumps Gegenverfassung
“He who saves his Country does not violate any Law”
Continue reading >>Trump’s Counter-Constitution
“He who saves his Country does not violate any Law.”
Continue reading >>The Claim of Hybrid Attacks
At the European Union’s external borders, migrants are being instrumentalized in geopolitical conflicts, as seen in cases before the European Court of Human Rights concerning pushbacks at the EU-Belarus border. Poland, Latvia, and Lithuania justify these measures as responses to a “hybrid war,” while critics warn against eroding non-refoulement protections. The Court’s ruling will be crucial in defining the balance between state security and human rights.
Continue reading >>Criminalizing Knowledge
When does sharing information become an act of disloyalty to the state? Three bills advancing through Israel’s Knesset aim to answer this question decisively: any cooperation with international justice mechanisms, particularly the International Criminal Court (ICC), would constitute a betrayal of the state punishable by up to life imprisonment. This legislative package marks a dramatic shift from merely opposing international criminal jurisdiction to criminalizing the very act of documentation and information-sharing about potential human rights violations. For Israeli scholars researching international humanitarian law, the message is clear: our academic work could become a criminal offense if it finds its way to international courts.
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A New Step in the Greening of the Right to Life
In Cannavacciuolo and Others v. Italy, the European Court of Human Rights unanimously found a violation of Article 2 ECHR on account of the State’s failure to protect the right to life of residents in an area of Southern Italy known as the “Land of Fires” (Terra dei Fuochi). This is the first judgment linking a violation of the right to life to the prolonged exposure to pollutants released into the environment. The decisive element for the applicability of the right to life has been a shift in the Court’s approach to the causal link requirement that triggers a violation of Article 2. The Cannavacciuolo judgment should therefore be seen as a turning point for climate and environmental justice.
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EU Citizenship Should Not Be Sold
The CJEU is soon to decide upon Malta’s citizenship for investment scheme. Upholding the Commission’s challenge would not deprive Malta of power to confer Maltese citizenship. Instead, it would build on settled jurisprudence that EU law constrains national rules conferring EU citizenship and follow the longstanding direction of travel of the Court’s jurisprudence, which has already overcome objections that it is too radical.
Continue reading >>The Binoculars at the Borders of Europe
A mere two months into 2025, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) have dealt with no less than 7 cases concerning various types of alleged pushbacks at Europe’s borders. In each of these cases rules of evidence were and remain at the forefront of effective human rights protection. This contribution highlights how the defending duty-bearing parties sought to interpret the applicable rules of evidence to evade responsibility. It further argues that failure by the Courts to meaningfully interpret these rules in light of current-day realities and the principle of effectiveness could risk eroding the absolute human rights at the core of the European legal order.
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Why Australia’s Campaign Finance Reform is Likely to Face Constitutional Challenge
After decades of gridlock on campaign finance reform at the federal level in Australia, the major parties reached a deal to pass the Electoral Legislation Amendment (Electoral Reform) Act 2025 (Cth) on almost the last parliamentary sitting day before a forthcoming election. The new law will not take effect until after the election. It will lower the threshold for the disclosure of donations and ensure disclosures are published more quickly. It will also impose a cap on political donations and a cap on electoral expenditure. This all sounds like a great improvement for transparency and fairness in election campaigning. In theory, it is. So why and how could it be the subject of a successful constitutional challenge?
Continue reading >>Where Is Our Outcry?
Two universities – the LMU Munich and the Freie University Berlin – cancelled events featuring Francesca Albanese, the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian Territory occupied since 1967. Isn’t this the moment when we should finally speak up, even if we have not done so before for fear of taking a wrong step in the minefield that is the Israel/Palestine debate? Francesca Albanese is our colleague. The holder of a mandate by the Human Rights Council. A globally well-respected scholar of international law who speaks at universities around the world.
Continue reading >>The De-Regulatory Turn of the EU Commission
The current events in the US, especially the takeover of executive branches by the non-elected private citizen Elon Musk, left legal scholars and other constitutional experts in a state of shocked disbelief. From a European perspective, many consider such a development unthinkable. However, we should not be too certain about that. The current decision of the EU Commission to carry out a “de-regulatory turn” illustrates how strongly a technical innovation narrative – one that has contributed to the success of individuals like Musk and their corporate conglomerates – is catching on globally.
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What Madonna Got and the EU Did Not
For the past three months, Serbian citizens have been actively protesting, demanding a shift from the rule by man to the one, governed by the rule of law. The protests followed the tragedy of November 1, 2024, when the recently renovated canopy of the railway station in Novi Sad collapsed and took 15 lives and severely injured 2 individuals. The Prime Minister has resigned, and massive protests are sweeping across the country. Meanwhile, the EU continues to prioritize regional stability over addressing the President’s abuse of power.
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How the CJEU Should Supervise the Court of Arbitration for Sport
On 16 January 2025, AG Ćapeta rendered her Opinion in the Seraing case which could have profound effects for transnational governance of sports. AG Ćapeta highlights convincingly the specificities of CAS arbitration, its forced nature and peculiar private enforcement system. She concludes that CAS awards should be deprived of res judicata effect and subject to EU law review. I advocate for a less disruptive approach. Instead of a total devaluation of CAS awards, we should condition the recognition of their bindingness to their compliance with European public policy and fundamental due process rights.
Continue reading >>From Democracy to Dynastic Rule?
On January 30, 2025, the National Assembly of Nicaragua approved a constitutional reform that significantly strengthens the power of President Daniel Ortega and his wife, Vice President Rosario Murillo. The amendments profoundly transform the country’s political system, reinforcing the Executive’s influence over other branches of the state. This analysis aims to trace the political evolution of Nicaragua in order to better understand how the constitutional framework of the state is changing now.
Continue reading >>In Search of Honour
There is a presumption underlying the liberal democratic constitutional project that has been exposed by the Trump administration in its first weeks in office – that formal constitutional structures are all we need to protect against bad political actors. But our entire constitutional system hinges on the very basic idea of people in positions of power doing the right thing. Therefore, I will argue that the behavioural chink in the constitutional chain that needs to be re-discovered is honour. Honour possesses the cultural potency, political currency, and psychological impetuous we need to turn the tide on illiberalism.
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A Sisyphean Task?
Ethiopia finds itself at a critical juncture in its attempt to embark on a journey of confronting its violent past through a multi-prong transitional justice process. Despite notable progress in drafting the legal frameworks and the establishment of necessary institutional structures to set the wheels of transitional justice in motion, public trust in the current process remains fragile. The government's current crack down on civil society organizations and media freedom is likely to exacerbate this problem.
Continue reading >>We Are Launching the Judicial Resilience Project
How Vulnerable Is the German Judiciary?
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Rethinking Remembrance
Can commemorative practices such as memorials, museums, and national remembrance days effectively transform attitudes and behaviours to deter violence? Despite the proliferation of memorialisation practices globally, their tangible impact on reducing violence or fostering reconciliation and healing is often assumed rather than rigorously demonstrated.
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Trump’s Straussian Shysters: The Scary Sequel
Nearly three years ago I wrote here about the far-right constitutional theory behind Trump lawyer John Eastman’s role in the inept yet deadly January 6, 2021 coup attempt against then President-elect Joe Biden. I described the idiosyncratic reworking by Eastman and other so-called west-coast Straussians at California’s Claremont Institute of the ideas of the German-Jewish refugee Leo Strauss, an imposing, deeply conservative political theorist, into an apology for an executive-directed counterrevolution aimed ostensibly at restoring the original US constitutional order. Little did I imagine that Strauss’ Claremont disciples would soon enjoy a political comeback, and that they would once again be wreaking constitutional havoc.
Continue reading >>Connective and Disjunctive Memory
Digital memory scholars highlight a shift to “connective memory”, which connects individuals to a multitudes of users as opposed to the memory of a collective. Additionally, the importance of forgetting has become an essential demand of participants in digital communication, which leads to the importance of understanding “disjunctive memory” as well. Undermining the hopes for progressing empathy and understanding in the digital age, its disruptive effects materialize in Russian digital media discourse in the 2020s.
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Transgender Rights at a Crossroads in the United States
In his first month in office, US President Donald Trump has issued a series of sweeping executive orders targeting transgender rights. These orders build on political terrain that is now exceedingly hostile to transgender rights. In this post, I briefly examine the landscape for transgender rights in the United States, analyze what President Trump’s executive orders on transgender rights aim to do, and then discuss the stakes of United States v. Skrmetti, the pending Supreme Court case that will likely set out the framework that federal courts will use in adjudicating transgender rights cases under the Trump administration and beyond.
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Once Populist, Now Mainstream?
The heydays of international law are over - that much is suggested by politicians and political observers in Germany. Those who still argue in favour of an international order based on international law seem unprepared for a world of autocrats and transactional deals. Allegedly, they fail to realize the need to protect and prioritize national interests. International legal practices are even perceived as immoral when authoritarian states rely on international law to oppose foreign policy decisions of democratic states, as exemplified by recent proceedings before international courts on the war in Gaza. For a long time, international law was almost idealized in German debates, but now something seems to be shifting.
Continue reading >>Reversing Emancipation?
Amid Bolivia’s current economic crisis, mining cooperatives remain key actors due to their strong capacity for (self-)employment and their deep-rooted historical presence in popular sectors. Their significance was reflected in their recognition in the 2009 Plurinational Constitution as a constituent sector of the country's "plural" economy. However, the strength of this sector has paradoxically led to weak regulations exposing miners to multiple risks, including the severe threat of silicosis.
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The Memory Machine
In an era where Large Language Models increasingly shape how societies remember and interpret history, it is crucial to recognize their potential impact on the diversity and plurality of collective memory. By implementing regulatory frameworks, fostering digital literacy, and prioritizing ethical AI development, we can ensure that these technologies enhance rather than homogenize our shared narratives, preserving the richness of human history for future generations.
Continue reading >>Beyond Formal Legality
The Venice Commission’s position on Poland’s judicial reforms presents a paradox: it warns that measures to restore the rule of law could themselves violate it – even though the rule of law has already been undermined. To solve this paradox, I propose two conceptual clarifications. The first one applies distinction between violating and departing from formal legality. The second one recognizes that judges unconstitutionally appointed under an illiberal regime cannot be acknowledged as legitimate judges in the constitutional sense.
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Does the EU Have What it Takes to Counter American Plutocratic Power?
Our symposium ‘Musk, Power, and the EU’ has evolved in parallel with the inauguration of the new US administration and has been marked by numerous and unprecedented attacks on the European Union. Amid a flurry of announcements challenging the status quo - often with brutal disregard, even against traditional allies - the European Union, along with the way it exercises power, suddenly appears as the antithesis of the new America. Yet does the EU have what it takes to resist such an expansionist and plutocratic projection of power, which now threatens Europe’s security, lifestyle and overall existence?
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We Are Still Here
Eunice Paiva (1929-2018) was a prominent Brazilian lawyer and human rights defender. Married to Rubens Paiva, a congressman who disappeared during the Brazilian military dictatorship, Eunice transformed her grief into activism, denouncing the regime’s violence. The film Ainda Estou Aqui (I Am Still Here), based on the book of the same name written by her son, Marcelo Rubens Paiva, offers a unique opportunity to learn about her fight for the rule of law.
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Constitutionally Capturing Pakistan’s Constitutional Courts
In 2024, Pakistan’s parliament passed a constitutional amendment carrying out the most significant restructuring of Pakistan’s superior judiciary in its recent history. This judicial overhaul needs to be analyzed as part of a process of regime realignment. By regime realignment, I mean a ruling authoritarian elite radically altering its supportive political structure and popular bases to expand and extend its hold on power. Based on news sources and conversations with senior lawyers and judges, I will show that this plan for judicial overhaul developed iteratively through a process of intra- and inter-institutional dialogue and conflict that took place during regime realignment.
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Corporate Power Beyond Market Power
Elon Musk’s corporate empire spans an impressive array of markets and industries. This empire includes SpaceX (and its subsidiary Starlink), Tesla, Neuralink, The Boring Company, X, xAI, and the Musk Foundation. These corporations are connected and interlinked, creating a cross-corporate power structure. Competition law, which focuses on market power in narrowly defined relevant markets – say, a market for booster rockets – has very limited reach to guard against the possible detrimental effects of such multifaceted concentrated power in the hands of a few on open democratic societies.
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The Politics of Forgetting and Foreign Policy
The “politics of forgetting” – as I call the political strategy of omitting or marginalising key historical events in official memory – influences both domestic and foreign policy. Its effects on foreign policy are multifarious. Not remembering a historical event, or selectively forgetting parts of it, enables a certain foreign policy posture. A further issue arises when an event that is “forgotten” or marginalised in national narratives plays a major role in the political constructions of another country.
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The Looming Enforcement Crisis in European Digital Policy
The EU's push for stronger digital laws to protect fundamental rights and democracy faces significant challenges due to fragmented enforcement and overlapping regulatory responsibilities. This fragmentation risks undermining the core principles of the EU legal order. A more coordinated, rule-of-law-centered enforcement framework is needed to address these tensions and ensure effective implementation of digital laws while safeguarding fundamental rights.
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Karenztage – Falscher Sparversuch auf Kosten der Arbeitnehmer
Die Einführung von Karenztagen in der Lohnfortzahlung im Krankheitsfall wird als Gegenmaßnahme gegen „Krankfeiern“ vorgeschlagen, birgt jedoch erhebliche Risiken. Anstatt den Missbrauch zu verringern, gefährdet sie die soziale Sicherheit der ArbeitnehmerInnen und verkompliziert das bestehende System. Zudem wird die Verantwortung für Missbrauch unzureichend auf die Erkrankten abgewälzt. Historisch betrachtet stellt die Lohnfortzahlung im Krankheitsfall eine wichtige sozialpolitische Errungenschaft und Schutzmaßnahme dar. Letztlich würde die Einführung von Karenztagen nicht nur mehr Kosten verursachen, sondern auch bestehende Kontrollmechanismen schwächen.
Continue reading >>Spillovers and Unexpected Interactions
The La Quadrature du Net II decision’s ripple effects are profound. By placing the ruling in thick context, this analysis uncovers hidden legal innovations and unexpected interactions that could reshape the future of data protection in the EU.
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Ukraine’s Constitutional Order in Wartime
Ukraine’s constitutional order is facing an unprecedented challenge due to Russia’s ongoing aggression. The war has forced the nation to navigate between maintaining democratic governance and ensuring national survival, all while operating under martial law. The looming expiration of presidential and parliamentary terms has sparked debates on legitimacy of the wartime governance. While wartime elections are neither feasible nor constitutionally required, legitimacy is upheld through constitutional provisions, political consensus, and international recognition.
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The End of the Centre
The Political Landscape before the Bundestag Elections
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Legal “heartfelt thinking”
Courts in Ecuador and in many other jurisdictions across the Global South, and increasingly in the Global North, have addressed this recognition of rights to nature in a pluralistic manner. Yet, it is exactly that cacophony of voices and actors that challenges traditional legal thinking. This requires leaving the beaten track and experimenting with new (legal) processes and methods. They can open up a space for experiments that can stimulate legal thinking and contribute to the further development of rights of nature, as illustrated in the following artistic-legal minga in Quito, organized in the framework of the Amazon of Rights project.
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Memory-driven Foreign Policy
The German debate on whether and to what extent Germany should support Ukraine in its war against Russia with arms supplies is closely linked to Germany’s collective memory. For a long time, Germany's guilt for the crimes of occupation during the Second World War was largely associated with Russia – and not with Ukraine and Belarus. It is only since the Russian invasion in 2022 that the highest levels of the German government have begun to recognize the special responsibility Germany has towards Ukraine, a responsibility that also stems from the memory of the Second World War. Along with this change, it can be observed that the imperative of ‘never again’, closely tied to the German memory of the Second World War and especially of the Holocaust, is gradually being formulated in more abstract terms in historical-political debates, despite some resistance.
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Elon Musk, the Systemic Risk
Elon Musk seems to many in Europe to symbolize the dawn of a digital dystopia. I argue, however, that this view may be incorrect in several respects. With the Digital Services Act (DSA) and its new “systemic tools,” the EU has an opportunity to address the technological roots of Musk’s powerful position in the digital sphere. In this context, Musk (potentially) using his platform (or AI) to intentionally influence the access, distribution, and presentation of information is “merely” a manifestation of risks that are already inherent in the systemic position of certain digital services.
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A Dangerous Departure
Governments from Argentina to the United States to Hungary and beyond are engaging in concerted efforts to assail and undermine sexual and reproductive rights that have long been understood as gendered interpretations of fundamental rights under international law. In this context, the recent decision by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in Beatriz v. El Salvador is a missed opportunity to consolidate the Court’s jurisprudence on sexual and reproductive health and rights and defend the legitimacy of international human rights law.
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Small Fry
Last week, the oral hearings in the EU-UK Sandeel case were concluded before the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague. This marks the first time in which a dispute between the EU and UK under the 2021 Trade and Co-operation agreement reaches the stage of arbitration, testing the post-Brexit legal framework in a case where the UK’s regulatory autonomy to adopt unilateral measures for the protection of the marine environment is pitted against the EU vessels’ right to access and fish in British waters.
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Voting from Abroad Ahead of Germany’s 2025 Snap Election
Over the past few weeks, several reports have appeared in German media on expected challenges with postal voting from abroad ahead of Germany’s snap election scheduled for 23 February 2025. For example, the recent case of a German citizen living in South Africa highlighted that ballot papers will be sent to registered postal voters only in the first week of February, whereas normally this is done six weeks ahead of election day. We suggest that countries should formally allow and facilitate postal voting for citizens living abroad via their country’s diplomatic missions and official courier services.
Continue reading >>Ceci n’est pas un Ban?
On 19th January 2025, the ‘Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act’ became operative in the USA in respect of TikTok, routinely (but somehow deceptively) referred to as ‘TikTok ban’. I will not deal in detail here with the saga (which readers of this blog are already familiar with), but with the misalignment between legal form and political narrative: A vaguely formulated statute became a symbolical proxy for principled confrontation over the underlying values.
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The Baltic Politics of Post-War Accountability for Russia
Will the Russian war against Ukraine prove to be a watershed moment for the implementation of international criminal law on the aggressor? This contribution focuses on the Baltic states’ accountability-seeking for Russia as the politics of deterrence by legal means and a struggle for historical justice.
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America’s First Religious Public School?
On 24 January 2025, the US Supreme Court granted certiorari to a case that could fundamentally reshape the nature of public education in the United States by permitting public schools – so called charter schools – to become religious in character. However, this blog argues that this case is not merely about school choice or religious freedom, but rather reflects the culmination of “private disestablishment”— a legal phenomenon where entities that operate at the blurred boundary between public and private recast themselves as entirely private actors while performing public functions. By doing so, they secure public benefits—such as funding and regulatory advantages—without bearing the constitutional obligations, such as anti-discrimination mandates or religious neutrality, that typically constrain public institutions.
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Remembering Democracy
In the years following the brutal suppression of pro-democracy protests in Belarus in 2020 and 2021, a wave of politically engaged Belarusian artists — visual artists, musicians, filmmakers, poets and novelists — have been driven into exile. Scattered abroad, these artists not only use their work to reflect on the repression at home, but also seek new ways to keep the spirit of resistance alive.
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The Habitats Directive as a Tool for Systemic Biodiversity Litigation
On 22 January 2025, the District Court of The Hague found the Netherlands in breach of the Habitats Directive and the Dutch nitrogen targets by failing to stop the deterioration of protected habitats and by failing to prioritise the most vulnerable habitats through its nitrogen targets. This blogpost provides an overview of the judgment and argues that the case enables a link between the location specific approach of EU nature protection and a systemic dimension and highlights the strength of the Habitats Directive. Conversely, it shows some limitations regarding the remedy and a missed opportunity to consider the longer-term and inter-generational impacts
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Law, Coercion, and State Crime
On January 26, 2025, President Donald J. Trump announced via Truth Social retaliatory measures against Colombia following President Gustavo Petro’s refusal to allow US deportation flights. These included a 25% emergency tariff on Colombian imports, escalating to 50% within a week. The Trump administration’s use of unilateral economic sanctions on countries opposing US policies is part of a long history of imperial interventions. Sanctions are central to the colonial arsenal of economic statecraft, disproportionately targeting the Global South. I argue that sanctions should be recognized as a form of state crime due to their socially injurious effects.
Continue reading >>Four Reasons Why Illiberal Politics Appropriated the Memory of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution
In this contribution, I am analysing the reasons for the appropriation of the 1956 Hungarian revolution. I argue that these reasons are four-fold: First, the memory of 1956 has been divided from the start. Second, half of the population, namely women, were excluded from this memory. Third, the revolution was a bottom-up event. Fourth, the transition after 1990 was built on the concept of authenticity and truth made the narrative vulnerable to illiberal appropriation.
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Democracy vs. Digital Giants
After Elon Musk's attacks on European politicians, Emmanuel Macron warned of digital tycoons threatening democracy. This post examines how tech giants have evolved from EU allies to political actors shaping policy and public debate. It questions whether current regulations can curb their growing influence while balancing free speech and platform neutrality.
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Lucy Thoumaian (née Rossier de Visme)
A life dedicated to helping those in need, Lucy Thoumaian fought tirelessly for justice and peace. She gave her voice and heart to the Armenian people and rescued her Armenian husband when he was imprisoned and sentenced to death - this female “knight errant” even inspired a late 19th century novel. As initiator of the “Every Woman” International Movement, she called upon her “[d]ear Sisters of Every Land” to unite for peace during the First World War. The story of our “Sister” begins in France and Switzerland in the mid-19th century, in the peace of the mountains.
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“Competitive Victimhood” in Poland
The introduction of a legal component into the already complex and emotionally charged mosaic of memory in Poland, instead of calming and ordering the disputes, seems only to reinforce antagonistic attitudes, whether on the Polish, Jewish or Ukrainian side. In such a situation, the law can become a weapon both for and against historians and politicians alike, but it can also harm the witnesses of history, the still living victims of past crimes, or their relatives.
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The Authoritarian Market Playbook
For more than a decade, lawyers and political scientists have extensively studied the “authoritarian playbook” – the instruments, methods and processes used by autocrats such as Hungary’s Viktor Orbán to capture established democracies. However, so far, the impact of autocratic economic governance on the rule of law has been surprisingly underexplored in the legal field. The respective electoral wins of Donald Trump in 2016 and 2024 illustrate that economic policies are often at the heart of authoritarian actors’ electoral success and ideological goals. Even more so, this is certainly true for Hungary, as Orbán’s political regime is deeply rooted in crony state capitalism and institutionalized corruption.
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Carte Blanche for Judicial Appointments?
In the recent Valančius judgment, the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice of the European Union (Court of Justice or ECJ), ruled on Union law requirements for the judicial appointment procedure to the EU General Court. Having previously clarified the Union law requirements for the selection procedures of national judges, the Valančius case at first sight confirms the applicability of these requirements to the selection procedure of EU General Court judges. However, a closer look reveals that the judgment risks effectively giving carte blanche for Member States to design the national stage of the appointment procedure regarding EU General Court judges.
Continue reading >>Feeble Recognition of a Systematic Pushback Practice
In A.R.E. v. Greece and G.R.J. v. Greece, jointly published at the beginning of 2025, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) finally acknowledged Greece’s long-standing systematic practice of violently pushing people back at its land and sea borders. While this is already remarkable, both rulings stand out for the Court’s thorough evidentiary analysis and new standards for proving pushbacks. However, the ECtHR failed to fully incorporate the context of a systematic practice, instead maintaining a high threshold for evidencing individual instances of pushbacks.
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Memory Laws and Colonial Reckoning in France and the Netherlands
While France embraced the formal regulation of historical memory regarding its colonial past nearly two decades ago with the adoption of a law by its parliament, the Netherlands has opted for more symbolic recognition on behalf of the head of state. The essay argues that, despite neither approach being capable of fully satisfying all sides in the debate on how to frame colonialism in the present, the Dutch model is notably less problematic concerning its impact on freedom of expression, adherence to the rule of law, and the fit towards a unique set-up of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
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TikTok’s last dance
“On January 19, we still have President Biden, and on January 19, as I understand it, we shut down.” With these words—foreshadowing the final ban of the TikTok app in the United States—Noel Francisco, legal representative of ByteDance, the Chinese parent company, addressed the U.S. Supreme Court during oral arguments on January 10, 2025. One week later, the Supreme Court issued its ruling: TikTok’s appeal was dismissed. The court’s reasoning merits examination, while the implications remain uncertain, particularly as a Trump executive order temporarily blocks the ban’s enforcement.
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The Diversity of Legal Governance of Memory in Europe
Memory laws pose a set of distinct challenges for modern democracies, including in the realm of human rights law. In the four reports, conducted during the MEMOCRACY project, we took stock of the dynamics, trade-offs, and the effects of legal governance of historical memory in a region ridden with mnemonic conflicts. This contribution distils the most interesting comparative findings of the reports, namely the fact that the countries’ own and foreign experiences with totalitarianism are legally and politically approached very differently. On this basis, we sketch the consequences and challenges of these fundamental differences, both for the establishment of a “European memory” and the various states’ approaches to modern geopolitics.
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Omnipresent History
Present-time politics are, to an unprecedented extent, shaped by struggles over how to remember the past: Putin’s war of aggression against Ukraine is led in the name of history; Germany’s wrestling with the war in Gaza is largely determined by its memory of the Holocaust, to give just two examples. However, historical narratives have not only swept into politics, but also into law.
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Elon Musk’s Wake-up Call for Europe
Viewing Elon Musk’s recent forays into (electoral) politics in Europe primarily as a geopolitical wake-up call to European leaders, our analysis focuses on the promise and relative weaknesses of law and policy solutions as well as institutional arrangements the EU has put in place to protect European democracies from foreign interference. The EU and its Member States must adapt quickly to the new international realities if they do not want to be norm-takers rather than norm-shapers on major international dossiers.
Continue reading >>„Das Militär einzusetzen ist eine echte politische Zäsur“
Fünf Fragen an Amanda Frost
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“The use of the military is a real sea change in policy”
Five Questions to Amanda Frost
Continue reading >>Countering the Tech Oligarchy
Seeing Elon Musk with Donald Trump at the latter’s inauguration, it would be tempting to single him out as a unique and overbearing threat to a range of EU interests, such as its online environment, election integrity and regulatory capacity. But that would be to miss the point of a larger trend; what Joe Biden has termed the “tech-industrial complex” is not limited to the US. It, and an associated worldwide oligarchy, is converging with ascendant ultra-nationalist political agendas to pose wide-ranging challenges.
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The US Supreme Court and Plutocracy
Populist authoritarianism is a global phenomenon. However, the US is the only so-called consolidated democracy where its ascent has been eased by the systematic dismantling of legal limits on campaign donations. US elections are now not only the world’s most costly, but they are also directly subject to the inordinate influence of wealthy individuals and corporations. The Supreme Court of the United States’ 2010 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission ruling has paved the way for the emergence of so-called “super” PACS (political action committees) that, while formally barred from coordinating with candidates or parties, can accept unlimited corporate contributions.
Continue reading >>One Step Further Towards Global Plutocracy
On his first day in office, US President Donald Trump signed dozens of Executive Orders on various issues. Among those receiving little public attention was the announcement of the US withdrawal from the OECD project on reforming global corporate taxation. This step, although expected, is a major setback for the only global plan aimed at increasing economic fairness that has any real chance of success.
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Sri Lanka’s Constitutional Council Comes Into Its Own
2024 was full of landmark decisions, and the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka ended the year with another one for the history books. In Pathirathne v Abeywardena and others, the court dealt with the controversial issue of the constitutional council’s refusal to approve the president’s nomination of a judge to the Supreme Court. This was the first case seeking review of a decision of the constitutional council. I argue that the decision is significant because the court affirms the council’s role in securing judicial independence, overrules (by implication) previous remarks on the council’s purpose, and strengthens the culture of inter-branch accountability.
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Democracy or Domination
The urgency of Europe’s creep towards plutocracy calls for a similarly urgent response. Competition law, given its history and potential as a tool of anti-domination, is a natural fit to protect and revitalise democracy in Europe from the threats posed by excessive concentrations of private power. For it to be effective for that purpose, competition scholars must clearly articulate which democratic values, like non-domination, competition law should seek to pursue, and clear-mindedly design mechanisms through which to channel them.
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Banning AI for Political Campaigns
On 2 January 2025, the Indonesian Constitutional Court banned the use of Artificial Intelligence by political candidates to design campaign portraits, citing ethical concerns and a violation of the constitutional "honest principle." This post explores the cultural context behind this unique decision, focusing on how Indonesia’s communal values and emphasis on outward appearance shape both the Court’s reasoning and the petitioner’s arguments.
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Trump and the Folklore of Capitalism
How can we make sense of the return of Donald Trump, who again convinced enough US voters of his populist bonafides? Populist authoritarianism has made inroads around the world. Only Trump’s version, however, probably brings together so much wealth and power, with super-rich business executives now at the helm. Here I tap a brilliant but neglected book, The Folklore of Capitalism (1937), by the legal scholar and New Deal trustbuster, Thurman Arnold (1891-1961), to understand this remarkable development. Folklore of Capitalism helps explain Trump’s wide appeal, despite the electorate’s disagreements with many of his policy preferences.
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On Peru’s Constitutional Crisis
Two hundred years after gaining independence, Peru finds itself in a state of political instability. Over the past six years, the country has had six different presidents — largely due to a persistent power struggle between the Legislative and Executive branches. The ongoing turmoil indicates that Peru finds itself in a constitutional crisis– a crisis that encompasses both the constitutional text, tainted by its authoritarian history, and the political constitution, understood as the actual form of government.
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Why Armenia is Not Referring the Situation to the ICC
It has been a year since Armenia acceded to the Rome Statute, marking a new institutional chapter for the country. The decision to join the ICC reflects Armenia’s desire to align with international standards of justice and accountability. However, it has yet to refer the situation regarding crimes committed against Armenians from the second Nagorno-Karabakh war to the ICC, largely due to significant political pressure from Russia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey.
Continue reading >>Zuckerberg’s Strategy
On January 7, 2025, and in the days following, the founder and CEO of Meta, Mark Zuckerberg, made a series of statements that framed Meta's previous and future content policy with an evidently strategic intention. The change of content moderation policy, as described in three comprehensive points in his personal announcement on his own platforms, may even sound reasonable, as discussed below. However, the reasoning and the framing of these changes appear to show that Meta is up to something entirely different from just further optimizing its curation of content on its platforms.
Continue reading >>Plutocracy 2025
When thinking about this current moment in time when major currents of political and economic power seem to flow into each other in exceptional and perhaps unparalleled ways, it might be useful to tease out in some more detail how exactly plutocracy 2025 differs from the entanglements of economic and business power that have come before. Here is one difference that seems particularly striking. Plutocracy in 2025, unlike its typical predecessors, is not really engineered in discrete fashion behind the scenes by deep-rooted dynasties of political and economic life. Instead, it is a full-frontal brash attack right on the public stage.
Continue reading >>Trump’s Order of Law
Today, January 20, 2025, Donald Trump is going to be inaugurated a second time as the 47th President of the United States. His presidency is expected to herald a dramatic change to America’s policy on immigration as his hardcore rhetoric may transform into hardened policy. To fulfil his campaign promises, in particular his planned mass deportation policy, Trump has repeatedly stated his intention to invoke two archaic laws: the 1807 Insurrection Act and the Alien Enemies Act of 1798. This blog will provide an overview of the two acts, explain the requirements for the President-elect to utilize them, and detail potential ways to cabin their use.
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The Hidden Reach of the EU AI Act
The EU AI Act not only regulates artificial intelligence but also triggers the application of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, embedding EU principles of procedural justice into national administrative law. This development advances the Europeanisation of domestic legal systems and reshapes the balance between EU and national public law in the digital age.
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Protecting Democracy in the Digital Era
At the dawn of 2025, liberal democracy is faced with a considerable challenge: Big Tech bosses appear to leverage their market power for far-reaching political influence, without any democratic legitimisation to do so. As someone working on issues of market power in the digital economy, one cannot help but wonder: shouldn’t competition law be able to contain (some of) this unseeming wielding of market power?
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Musk, Techbrocracy, and Free Speech
In this blogpost, I situate and address Musk’s position within the broader EU debate on freedom of expression. The purpose of this symposium is to elucidate aspects that make Musk, his influence, and his provocations to the EU legal order, problematic under EU law, and, should we consider his influence as unwanted, harmful or illegal, whether EU law can provide answers to it. This post centres on three points: (i) Musk’s changes to X’s content moderation process, (ii) Musk’s usage of X to amplify select political candidates and (iii) Musk’s ownership of Starlink. It ends with a note on how this fits in a grander theme, which has been dubbed by commentators such as Paul Bernal as the ‘techbrocracy’.
Continue reading >>Musk, Power, and the EU
At a time when calls for the EU to respond to Musk’s provocations multiply, critical questions about whether, why, and how the EU may react remain largely unanswered. Musk’s conduct, which spans sectors as diverse as social media (X, formerly Twitter), AI (xAI), satellite technology (Starlink), space rockets (SpaceX), and electric vehicles (Tesla), pose unique challenges to existing legal frameworks. His multi-industry influence gives rise to profound questions about the limits of individual influence and power accumulation in a complex geopolitical landscape.
Continue reading >>Lucretia Mott (née Coffin)
For abolitionists, she cared too much about “the woman question”, for feminists, she was too concerned with anti-slavery reforms. Lucretia Mott was caught in a crossfire of human rights movements. Her relentless activism for universal liberty and freedom allowed her to embrace both efforts.
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Targeting Disciplinary Courts
Hungary has faced significant challenges to judicial independence in recent years. The incumbent Chief Justice appears to have been working for some time to take control over disciplinary proceedings. In a recent development, the sweeping outrage of judges against planned structural reforms may have created the political opportunity to further silence dissenting voices. The Chief Justice’s New Year Greetings made it clear that the threat is real. Hungary could be on the verge of a full-scale judicial capture.
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Austria’s Populist Turn
With the elections in September 2024, the populist Freedom Party (FPÖ) became the strongest party in Austria for the first time. In January 2025, hopes of averting populism quickly faded when Austria’s Federal President Alexander van der Bellen was left with no choice other than giving the FPÖ a mandate to form a government. In this context, two aspects stand out: the role of constitutional conventions in recent months and the political change in the Bundesländer (states).
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How the Destroyers of Academic Freedom Masquerade Themselves as Its Victims
Under the authoritarian leadership of Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, the government has started a culture war to dismantle the independence of academic institutions, including universities and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, arguing that they represent a threat to their proudly proclaimed illiberal ideology. Ironically, after dismantling academic freedom in the country, Orbán’s administration started to claim that actually the liberals are the ones who, through "cancel culture", threaten academic freedom.
Continue reading >>Vulnerable Lives, Militarized State
Ecuador’s security crisis, marked by increasing militarization, culminated in the forced disappearance and alleged execution of four children in Las Malvinas in December 2024. This case highlights severe shortcomings in the protection of human rights, particularly regarding state accountability and the safeguarding of vulnerable populations. It underscores the need for institutional reforms and effective oversight to address human rights violations.
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Godly Constitution and Divine Enlightenment
God is not dead, at least not in Indonesia. Belief in God is not only fervent across the population, but also exalted as part of the constitutional identity of the state itself. On 3 January 2025, the Indonesian Constitutional Court issued a judgment concerning the rights of non-believers in Indonesia. The Court essentially ruled that there is ‘no room’ for the freedom to be irreligious in Indonesia. Most notably, the Court has declared that the 1945 Indonesian Constitution is a ‘Godly Constitution’, and therefore all laws must always be ‘illuminated by divine enlightenment’. The judgment represents an unusual form of constitutional theocracy, which is inherently syncretic and claims to represent the collective wisdom of all recognised religions of Indonesia.
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Miller II, Part II?
Earlier this week, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced that he would resign as Prime Minister once a new Liberal leader was selected. He also revealed that he had advised the Governor General to prorogue Parliament and that she had granted the request, with Parliament set to return on March 24. Following the Prime Minister’s announcement, a judicial review application was filed in Federal Court challenging the prorogation. In this blog post, I analyse what we know about the legal challenge so far.
Continue reading >>“This Undermines the State’s Promise of Equality”
Five Questions to Dana Schmalz
Continue reading >>How the EU Commission Backs up Pushbacks at the EU-Belarussian Border
In December 2024, the European Commission issued a communication to the European Parliament and the Council discussing the current situation of so-called ‘hybrid threats’ at the EU-Belarussian border. With the goal of stopping irregular arrivals of migrants and its facilitation by Belarus and Russia, the EU Commission outlines how EU primary law, namely Art. 72 TFEU, could be utilized by Member States to circumvent the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) and curtail the protection afforded by fundamental rights for migrants. By advising member states to make use of this legal pathway for the current situation at the EU-Belarussian border, the EU Commission indirectly justifies the current pushback practices from Poland, Lithuania and Latvia.
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Territorial Concessions to the Aggressor
How can Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine be brought to an end? With recent proposals by the Trump transition team, a possible peace treaty with Ukraine and Russia is gaining renewed attention. Gregory Fox predicts that “territorial transfers […] would likely be at the heart of any agreement”. The rule on coerced treaties (Art. 52 VCLT) poses a major legal obstacle to territorial concessions to an aggressor state. Under that rule, a treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by an unlawful threat or use of force. That notwithstanding, a treaty invalid under Art. 52 VCLT can be validated by the UN Security Council (UNSC), a solution that is also compatible with jus cogens.
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Can the Rule of Law Be Restored by Violating Its Principles?
This post concerns one of the crucial problems of transitional constitutionalism after a period of democratic and rule of law backsliding: how to restore the principle of the rule of law? Are there circumstances when, during this restoration, the principles of the rule of law are allowed to be violated? For instance, when the violation of the rule of law was an important tool to exercise arbitrary power, as was the case before the 1989-1990 East-Central European democratic transitions?
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BVerfG erklärt Krankenhausvorbehalt bei ärztlichen Zwangsmaßnahmen teilweise für verfassungswidrig
Das Bundesverfassungsgericht erklärte am 26. November 2024 den Krankenhausvorbehalt für ärztliche Zwangsbehandlungen (§ 1832 Abs.1 Nr.7 BGB) teilweise für verfassungswidrig. Zwangsmaßnahmen dürfen in Ausnahmefällen auch außerhalb eines Krankenhauses durchgeführt werden, wenn die Verbringung erhebliche gesundheitliche Beeinträchtigungen verursachen würde und der Krankenhausstandard vor Ort nahezu erreicht wird. Die Entscheidung stellt das Schutzkonzept des Gesetzgebers infrage, der Zwangsmaßnahmen als letztes Mittel im stationären Setting sichern wollte. Bis zur Neuregelung (Frist: 31.12.2026) gilt die bestehende Rechtslage fort.
Continue reading >>From Objectives to Obligations
On December 13, 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) concluded the hearings of the advisory proceedings on State obligations in respect of Climate Change. On the last day of the hearings, judges posed four questions to participants to be answered within a one-week timeframe. The Judges enquired about State obligations in relation to fossil fuels; the interpretation of Article 4 of the Paris Agreement; the content of the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment; and the significance of declarations made by some States on becoming parties to the UN climate treaties. This blog post will provide a brief exploration of the first two questions and issues raised.
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Democracy and the Election Commission of India
As I write this review on the eve of 2025, much hasn’t changed when it comes to the status of democracy in India. If anything, there are increasing concerns that the gains of democratic consolidation since the inauguration of the Indian Constitution are withering away and giving ample space for the entrenchment of a majoritarian, anti-democratic political culture. The vile and morally corrupt politics of the Bharatiya Janata Party (“BJP”) have struck a chord with the voters, who continue to support its exclusionist vision of India.
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Merry Christmas, with Hope from Ukraine
In the depths of this dark winter, Shchedryk—the song born from Ukraine’s heart— shines as a gift to the world. It is a testament to Ukraine's resilience, its cultural spirit, and its undying hope for renewal and freedom. As the familiar chimes of Carol of the Bells ring through the air this Christmas, let us hear them not only as a celebration of holiday joy but also as a reminder of Ukraine’s fierce struggle for sovereignty and peace. Merry Christmas, with hope from Ukraine.
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The ICC Under a New Threat
Since the ICC announced arrest warrants against Netanyahu and Gallant, the world has started to observe open equivocation from France and other European states about executing those arrest warrants. This inevitably raises the question whether it had been too easy in the past for nations of the West to profess “unflinching support” for the ICC when all the accused persons were Africans; even though the conducts of some of them (consider, for instance, the defendants from Kenya and Côte d’Ivoire) came nowhere close to the extravagant cruelty on full display in Gaza, despite rulings of the International Court of Justice and the relentless appeals of the UN Secretary General.
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Blinded by Legality
The Venice Commission’s recent opinions on Poland’s judicial reforms have prioritized formal legality over substantive judicial independence. The Commission thereby effectively legitimizes the judiciary captured under the previous autocratic government. The Commission’s shift contrasts sharply with its own prior critiques and European court rulings, raising concerns that the Commission’s stance now shields autocracy under the guise of legality.
Continue reading >>Tendayi Achiume
Tendayi Achiume is a leading voice in international law, combining academic expertise with global advocacy to combat systemic racism, xenophobia, and gender discrimination. Her career is marked by an unwavering commitment to social justice, grounded in the belief that interdisciplinary collaboration is essential for impactful knowledge production. Through her work, she has distinctively contributed to rethinking human rights in the context of colonial legacies and migration justice.
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Protecting Poland’s Public Media
In contrast to the slower-paced reforms in the judiciary, the new Polish government opted for swift and radical action in reforming public media during its first year. Political considerations often overshadowed strict adherence to the law in public media changes. However, public media showed improvement compared to their propagandist role under the previous administration. The media reform will be tested through its approach to revising legislation and following a constitutional procedure to appoint public media boards.
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Charting Change
The ongoing reform of the Polish Prosecution Service, initiated by separating the roles of Prosecutor General and Minister of Justice, aims to restore the rule of law and enhance the institution's independence and effectiveness. Yet, achieving this goal requires comprehensive reforms to address longstanding issues and external factors. Success hinges on legislative support, particularly from the Ministry of Justice, and overcoming resistance to change among prosecutors, marking a potential new era for the institution.
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One Year After Wałęsa v. Poland
Despite some progress, the Polish government faces immense political and structural hurdles in implementing ECtHR judgments concenring the rule of law. Because November 2025 marks one year since the ECtHR issued the pilot judgment in Wałęsa v. Poland, it is a good moment to reflect on the progress made by the current authorities in implementing ECtHR judgments. This post delves into the steps taken, the obstacles ahead, and the question of whether a coherent plan exists to navigate this legal and constitutional crisis.
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At Risk of Capture?
On December 21st, the mandates of three judges of the Italian Constitutional Court will expire, creating a total of 4 vacancies. While Parliament is responsible for filling the seats, political parties are far from reaching an agreement on who should get appointed. The majority’s strategic obstruction of the appointment process in combination with Meloni’s assertions that it is up to her political majority to “deal the cards” for these elections raise the specter of the Court’s politicization. While the Italian legal system has several safeguards to preserve the impartiality and effectiveness of its Constitutional Court, these do not immunizes it against practices that could slowly and almost imperceptibly undermine its independence.
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New Zealand’s Constitution of Liberty
The New Zealand government has launched a consultation on a Regulatory Standards Bill that could shape both existing and future regulation. In addition to laying down principles to which regulation will be expected to conform, the bill would set up an institutional mechanism for implementing them. It is an ambitious undertaking which deserves attention beyond New Zealand’s shores for three reasons: first, its remarkably libertarian content; second, the unusual way in which it would be implemented; and third, what it can tell us about the ways in which an “unwritten” constitution changes―or doesn’t.
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Lay Judges in Common Courts
Lay judges in Poland, who play a crucial role in enhancing civic participation in the judiciary, have seen their role marginalized over time due to systemic changes and professional judges’ attitudes. Lay-judges do not feel adequately appreciated, do not see their function as a source of pride. Despite being undervalued and facing dwindling interest from citizens, revitalizing their participation through legislative reforms and a fresh narrative could strengthen public trust and legitimacy in the justice system.
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Schrödinger’s Judges
What happens when judges are both legitimate and illegitimate at the same time? In post-2023 Poland, tension arises between ‘old judges’ (pre-2018), accusing ‘neo-judges’ of ethical compromise, and the new government, which aims to maintain judicial continuity. As a result, neo-judges find themselves in a state akin to Schrödinger's cat, their legitimacy simultaneously affirmed and denied. This paradox encapsulates the broader struggle over judicial authority and political influence in the country.
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Prohibiting Drivers of Biodiversity Loss
On 14 November 2024, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) found Germany in breach of the Habitats Directive (HD) due to a failure to prohibit agricultural activities that drove biodiversity loss in protected (Natura 2000) sites. The ruling in C-47/23 appears significant due to its focus on the drivers of deterioration and the need to take legally binding measures against those drivers. In light of the poor state of nature across the EU and the ongoing failure to adequately address the drivers of biodiversity loss, this ruling provides an important clarification on the HD’s non-deterioration obligation.
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Freundschaft schließen mit der Entgelttransparenz
Die Entgelttransparenzrichtlinie (EU) 2023/970 soll geschlechtsspezifische Entgeltunterschiede durch erweiterte Transparenzmechanismen und klare Sanktionsvorgaben reduzieren. Sie erfordert bis 2026 Anpassungen des deutschen Entgelttransparenzgesetzes, dessen bisherige Instrumente – wie der Auskunftsanspruch und freiwillige Berichtspflichten – nur begrenzte Wirkung gezeigt haben. Die Richtlinie bietet die Chance, bestehende Entgeltsysteme zu reformieren, geschlechtsneutrale Bewertungsmaßstäbe zu etablieren und die Verhandlungsposition von Beschäftigten zu stärken.
Continue reading >>Restoring the Rule of Law
Poland has become a real-time laboratory of rule of law restoration. The new government is faced with the fundamental question of how to tackle undemocratic reforms with legitimate, democratic measures. Avoiding obstruction by the affiliates of the outgoing regime and suppressing the desire for retribution by the injured parties presents the biggest challenge. Yet, the Polish government has a rare occasion to lead by example on how to solve the rule of law crisis not only by legal, but also political means.
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The Winding Road To The Mountaintop
In the Rule of Law in Poland Action Plan, the Polish government outlined its approach to restoring the rule of law in the country. It might have been a good starting point for developing the concept of restoring the rule of law. However, it remains unsatisfying that, after so many years of discussing the collapse of the rule of law, more elaborate ideas for its restoration were not put on the table, and the Action Plan lacks concrete proposals.
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Why Taiwan’s Constitutional Court Is in Danger
Legislators from the leading party in Taiwan’s Legislative Yuan are moving to pass an amendment that could effectively paralyze the Constitutional Court. Under the proposed changes to the Constitutional Court Procedure Act, the Court may find itself unable to carry out its constitutional mandate. This week, Taiwan’s Legislative Yuan will deliberate the amendments. If the amendments are passed in their current form, Taiwan could face nothing less than a full-blown constitutional crisis.
Continue reading >>The 2025 Polish Presidency of the Council
Poland’s 2025 Presidency of the Council of the EU arrives at a moment of political turbulence and high stakes, with security as its flagship theme. This short period will see the return of Donald Trump, the volatile German snap parliamentary election, and the buildup to Poland's own presidential election. While Poland’s government promises a fresh, value-driven approach, its own challenges in fully restoring the rule of law and balancing pragmatism with EU ideals may temper its ambitions.
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Politicizing Constitutional Review
In July, the Finnish Parliament passed the Act on Temporary Measures to Combat Instrumentalised Migration. The Constitutional Law Committee, a Parliamentary organ in charge of ex ante constitutional review of legislation, greenlighted the Act despite the fact that all of the 18 legal experts it consulted found it to be in conflict with the Constitution, human rights obligations and EU law. This sparked a discussion about the politicization of the Committee and the role its experts play both in the Committee and the media. In this blog, I argue that the Committee’s politicization is visible in how it dressed political arguments as legal when assessing the law.
Continue reading >>EU Citizens’ Right to Join Political Parties
The Maastricht Treaty formally created the concept of citizenship of the European Union, based upon holding the nationality of a Member State. Now provided for in Article 20 TFEU, EU citizenship includes the right for EU citizens to vote in municipal and European Parliament elections in a Member State other than that of their nationality on the same basis as nationals. Two recent judgments by the Court of Justice enhance the role of EU citizenship as regards political rights, but its recognition of the importance of national identity in this area means that Member States can still place some limits on non-nationals’ role in politics.
Continue reading >>“It looks more like a managed transition than a revolution.”
Five Questions to Michael Meyer-Resende
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„Zur Zeit sieht es mehr wie ein geordneter Übergang aus, nicht wie eine Revolution.“
Fünf Fragen an Michael Meyer-Resende
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Shooting Democracy in the Foot?
On December 6th, the Romanian Constitutional Court (CCR) annulled the Presidential Elections. The CCR’s decision followed the disclosure of intelligence documents on December 4th. These showed Russian interferences in the electoral process and campaign, via propaganda and disinformation. The gravity of the violations evidenced by the documents released, coupled with the many concerning declarations by Călin Georgescu, made the CCR’s intervention vital. However, the modalities of and belatedness of the CCR’s and the Romanian authorities’ response with respect to this unfolding mess do nothing but exacerbate the root causes of Georgescu’s win, bolstering his claim that democracy is being denied to the people of Romania.
Continue reading >>Regulating AI at Europe’s Borders
How does the EU's AI Act affect migration and border management? This blog examines the critical gaps and challenges posed by the classification of high-risk AI systems, revealing how exceptions and loopholes amplify fundamental rights risks and accountability gaps. The analysis points out the need for stronger oversight and higher standards to protect the rights of individuals affected by AI-driven migration technologies.
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Integrating Artificial Intelligence in Ukraine’s Courts
This post examines Ukraine’s recent steps toward AI integration in the courts, highlighting initiatives and plans for the future. While these efforts reflect a growing recognition of AI’s potential, they also reveal limitations. Concerns surrounding AI, such as data security and confidentiality, reliability, transparency, explainability, accountability, fairness, and bias, are just as significant in judicial contexts as they are in other areas.
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Ahead of the Curve
While the German Supply Chain Act (SCDDA) faces criticism for its potential economic impact, compliance offers companies significant advantages. It positions them ahead of the curve in aligning with the forthcoming EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD). By integrating responsible business practices early, companies not only meet current human rights and environmental standards but also gain a competitive edge. Amending or repealing the SCDDA, however, risks diminishing these advantages for German businesses.
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EU’s AI Act and Migration Control. Shortcomings in Safeguarding Fundamental Rights
In the European Union, AI and non-AI technologies are increasingly being used for border and migration control. In this blog, Brouwer argues that the new AI Act, while adding safeguards, falls short of sufficiently protecting fundamental rights. This is due to its blanket exceptions and broad discretion for national and EU agencies to experiment with AI tools when making decisions about migrants, including asylum seekers and refugees. It is therefore important that the general legal framework on fundamental rights continues to be observed.
Continue reading >>Passing a Budget in Times of Legislative Paralysis
On December 4, the French National Assembly passed a motion of no-confidence against Prime Minister Michel Barnier’s government. This is an exceptionally rare occurrence and its legal consequences are, by necessity, uncertain. What is indisputable, however, is that the very passage of this motion places the government into caretaker status, which considerably restricts its legal authority. This legal situation presents acute challenges for the two budget-related bills currently pending in Parliament since both bills must be passed before December 31.
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Ein Anfang, mehr nicht
Kein anderes Thema hat die Gemüter beim Ringen um die KI-Verordnung der EU so sehr erhitzt wie die automatisierte Gesichtserkennung in der Strafverfolgung und ihre Regulierung. Jetzt stehen die Vorschriften für Gesichtserkennung und andere Methoden biometrischer Fernidentifizierung fest – zumindest der aller-äußerste Rahmen, den die KI-Verordnung festlegt. Diese Regelungen sind allerdings nur ein Anfang, mehr nicht.
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On Means and Ends
During the 2024 presidential elections, the Romanian Constitutional Court has assumed a surprisingly militant stance, ultimately granting it an unexpected leading role in the outcome (disruption) of the elections. Alas, the outcome, which at the moment seems an acceptable political result for the pro-European parties, i.e. preventing a possible victory of a far-right, pro-Russian candidate, was achieved through a series of unfortunate decisions. They were at odds with constitutional order, principles of the rule of law, or the idea of democracy.
Continue reading >>A Troubling Triumph in Romania
The annulment of Romania’s presidential election results by its Constitutional Court is, at first glance, a triumph for democracy. By nullifying the first round – narrowly won by far-right candidate Calin Georgescu amid allegations of Russian-backed interference – the Court sent a clear message: electoral integrity is not up for debate. But is this really a victory? In truth, this decision reflects a troubling pattern in how democracies respond to crises: after the fact. The annulment is not so much a defence of democracy as a stark reminder of the limits of judicial power.
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AI Act and the Prohibition of Real-Time Biometric Identification
Remote biometric identification (RBI) systems are increasingly becoming part of our daily lives. The most prominent example is the use of facial recognition technologies in public spaces (e.g. CCTV cameras). The AI Act regulates the use of RBI systems distinguishing between real-time and post RBI systems. While one of the main aims of the AIA was to ban real-time RBI systems, the Regulation failed to do so in an effective manner. Instead, it can be argued that the AIA still allows for a broad use of such systems.
Continue reading >>The AI Act National Security Exception
In 2024, the EU legislators adopted a detailed national security exception to the AI Act, contravening prior EU case law. Beyond the possibility of a future ruling that would realign the AI Act’s scope with said case law, the impact of this exception might be limited by other applicable laws and the interpretative and practical difficulty of distinguishing between national and public security. The AI Act’s failure to sufficiently account for these intricacies risks further legal uncertainty within the already complex security landscape. Therefore, this blog post explores the challenges of implementing the exception of national security to the AI Act’s scope of application.
Continue reading >>The EU AI Act’s Impact on Security Law
The process of integrating European security law is imperfect and unfinished – given the constraints posed by the European Treaties, it is likely to remain that way for the foreseeable future. This inevitable imperfection, lamentable as it may be, creates opportunities for legal scholarship. Legal scholars are needed to explore the gaps and cracks in this new security architecture and to ultimately develop proposals for how to fix them. This debate series, being a product of VB Security and Crime, takes the recently adopted AI Act as an opportunity to do just that: It brings together legal scholars, both German and international, in order to explain, analyze and criticize the EU AI Act’s impact on security law from both an EU and German national law perspective.
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Paula Escarameia
Paula Ventura de Carvalho Escarameia’s legacy extends beyond classical legal achievements. With a diversified career over decades that got cut short way too soon at the age of fifty, she’s earned global acclaim for her expertise in public international law, especially concerning the situation in East Timor. She believed that public international law was no rigid construct but could and should be changed especially in the areas of self-determination and the protection of human rights – ultimately contributing to the establishment of the International Criminal Court.
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The Second Round that Wasn’t
On 6 December 2024, the final day of Romania’s most turbulent presidential election campaign in the last 25 years, the Constitutional Court issued a ruling that was unprecedented not only in recent Romanian, but also in European constitutional history: it annulled the first round of the elections, held on 24 November, and ordered the entire electoral process to restart. Only 4 days earlier, on 2 December 2024, the same Court had ruled not to annul the first round of the elections. What led to this dramatic shift between those two dates?
Continue reading >>„Das IGH-Gutachten könnte die globale Klimagovernance grundlegend ändern.“
Fünf Fragen an Tejas Rao, Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and Markus Gehring
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“The Advisory Opinion Could Reshape Global Climate Governance.”
Five Questions to Tejas Rao, Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and Markus Gehring
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Bulgaria’s Controversial Prosecutor General
The ongoing nomination of Bulgaria’s next Prosecutor General, scheduled for January 16, 2025, has sparked concerns over the legitimacy of the Supreme Judicial Council, whose members’ mandates expired nearly two years ago, responsible for nominating the candidate. Despite the Constitutional Court’s ruling that the expiration of the SJC’s elected members does not dissolve the institution or suspend its functions, this decision follows a technical approach which allows nepotism and corrupted practice through the use of legal loopholes.
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A “Democratic Exception” to ICC Jurisdiction
On 21 November 2024, the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for the Israeli Prime Minister and the former Minister of Defence, for alleged crimes against humanity and war crimes in the ongoing Israel-Gaza War. Equally contentious was the response of leading Western states – including Germany and France – who have questioned or openly rejected treaty obligations to enforce the warrants. This is a conspicuously fraught position for countries who previously welcomed 2023 ICC arrest warrants for Russian President Vladimir Putin in legally identical circumstances.
Continue reading >>Why Australia’s Social Media Ban for Kids May Breach Its Constitution
On 29 November 2024, the Australian federal Parliament enacted a world-first law, which imposed a minimum age for access to most social media sites in the country. The law will not come into full force for at least twelve months, to give time to social media platforms to devise appropriate methods for verifying the ages of users. The law might be a rare example that fails the proportionality test. Social media companies have the means and incentive to mount a constitutional challenge to find out; surely they are going to do so.
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When Democracy Prevails
On December 3 at 10:25 pm, the President of South Korea Yoon Suk Yeol declared emergency martial law, which lasted for 6 hours until it was lifted following the unanimous vote of the South Korean Parliament to immediately end its imposition. This blog analyzes the legal aspects of the President’s failed attempt to maintain a martial law regime and further reflects on the significance of this event for the evolution of democracy in South Korea.
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Added value(s)?
During the hearing in the infringement proceedings against Hungary’s ‘anti- LGBTIQ+ Law’, the Commission placed the values of the EU at the heart of its pleas. Following its publication in the Official Journal, some expected (while others feared) that the Commission’s infringement action would rely on Article 2 TEU (which set out the values of the EU) as a self-standing ground. Instead, during the hearing, the Commission’s representatives were adamant that Article 2 may only be invoked in connection with other EU law provisions. That is a welcome clarification. Grounding an infringement action solely on Article 2 would be unwise. Yet, the inclusion of these values among the pleas is legally, politically, and morally significant.
Continue reading >>Under Guise of War
The Knesset’s legislative work since October 2023 has included several legislative initiatives that may be creating a framework for furthering systemic discrimination against Arab Israelis. These new laws could pose a dangerous new precedent in Israel, stripping the right to equality and human dignity of their meaning and threatening the already fragile state of democracy as we know it.
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The Return of Not-Quite “Phantom Experts”?
On Monday, 2 December 2024, the much anticipated hearing began in the Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change advisory proceedings before the International Court of Justice. Less than a week before the start of the hearing, the Court issued a brief and unusual press release about a meeting that it held with scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The Court’s decision to meet privately with the scientists raises questions about the Court’s procedures and its approach to evidence. Above all, it is unclear why the Court decided to consult with the IPCC scientists in a closed meeting rather than eliciting testimony from these individuals as part of the formal, public hearing.
Continue reading >>A Right to Anonymity in the Digital Age
Although digital anonymity is associated with a wide range of opportunities, it also stands in the way of successful criminal prosecution. The right to respect private and family life under the the EU Charter as well as the right to protection of personal data are of fundamental importance for natural persons. However, since life is increasingly taking place online, anonymity can be exploited to spread hate, discriminatory content, and fake news. Considering these risks, the ECJ has opened the door to data retention in Europe and thereby restricted digital anonymity.
Continue reading >>Data Retention Laws and La Quadrature du Net II
La Quadrature du Net II has been criticized for allowing generalized metadata retention measures. However, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that the law must not become a mechanism for protecting criminals. The scale of online rights violations are a real problem. P2P networks are not only a threat to copyright protection, but also an environment for the distribution of content related to serious crime. It is therefore necessary to strike a balance between these two concerns and to propose solutions that adequately protect users without guaranteeing impunity for criminals.
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Squaring the Circle
La Quadrature du Net II, which allows for the general retention of IP addresses to combat copyright infringements committed online, should not be viewed as carte blanche for general data retention measures by the Member States. Instead of watering down fundamental rights protection on a case-by-case approach, Member States should agree on guarantees and safeguards as well as a list of serious crimes allowing only the restricted use of targeted data retention in specific cases.
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The Challenges of Nuance
Five Questions to Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger
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Die Mühen der Differenzierung
Fünf Fragen an Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger
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New Media, New Data and a Dark Foreboding
After the major shift in surveillance practices from state power and control to big tech corporations and monetisation, we are currently witnessing yet another Zeitenwende: Surveillance practices as a means of hybrid warfare, with the AI-driven vision of accessing what people think and feel. This type of surveillance produces knowledge that not only claims to reveal what people are likely to do in the future but also what they feel and think. The consequences of this epistemological bending are potentially grave.
Continue reading >>Testing the Waters of Private Data Pools
Nowadays, data is mostly collected not by state actors but by businesses. In 2010, the German Constitutional Court held that the legislator has to evaluate the overall level of surveillance in Germany before enacting new data retention obligations. In light of the recent rejuvenised discussions about data retention and a general surveillance account, this text explores whether such an account needs to consider private data pools and what is required for a successful evaluation.
Continue reading >>Compensation for Victims of Violent Crimes
On 7 November 2024, the CJEU provided clarifications for building a cohesive EU-wide framework for compensating crime victims. The ruling not only curtails Member States’ discretion in interpreting key concepts that are critical to defining eligibility for compensation, but it also strengthens the interplay between the Compensation Directive and the Victims’ Rights Directive. This judgment reinforces the the harmonized definition of victim established in Article 2 of the Victims’ Rights Directive, solidifying its status for determining those entitled to victim’s rights.
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Data Retention in a Cross-Border Perspective
This blog post compares the European and US approach to metadata surveillance and highlights some challenges that arise therefrom. It aims at shedding light on the main legal issues that may arise for the future of global counterterrorism. The essential role of courts in striking and keeping a balance between security and protection of human rights is further examined in light of the judgement in La Quadrature du Net II. Efforts should be made to avoid that the economic power of the US would lower the privacy standards when it comes to metadata surveillance.
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The Long and Winding Road
The Court of Justice’s Quadrature du Net judgements mark another key moment in the complex and long-lasting legal debate on mass data retention in the European Union. This blogpost critically discusses the “constitutionalisation path” outlined by the EU Judges as well as the fragmented roads taken by Member States, with specific attention to Italy. Ultimately, it demonstrates the need for a decisive EU legislators’ intervention, able to draw the future path of data retention regimes.
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The Future of GDPR Enforcement
The ongoing trilogue negotiations on the GDPR procedural regulation aim to address significant enforcement shortcomings. From strengthening complainants' rights to harmonising Data Protection Authorities' discretion and improving cross-border cooperation, these discussions carry major implications for data protection in Europe. This analysis highlights the urgent need for reforms to ensure effective and fair enforcement.
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Of Minor Benefits and Major Costs
Is general and indiscriminate data retention permissible under the EU fundamental rights framework? In La Quadrature du Net II, the Court tilts the metaphorical scale towards data retention. The take-away could contribute to the enlargement of privatised surveillance that rests on a generalised pre-emptive data retention scheme. The ECJ’s findings could cement intrusive practices emerging from the counter-terrorism narrative to regular state practice at the expense of fundamental rights protection.
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Who Let the Bots Out
As artificial intelligence revolutionizes modern warfare, systems like Israel’s Lavender and Ukraine’s Clearview AI are transforming combat with precision and efficiency. This advancement has sparked an urgent debate on the responsible use and governance of AI in military, with 57 countries signing the Political Declaration on AI’s military applications, urging adherence to international law. Central to this is the accountability – who is responsible when AI systems violate laws? This blog post argues that state responsibility for AI violations remains viable within existing legal frameworks.
Continue reading >>Prioritising Member States Over Citizens
The classic story about the right to privacy and data protection in the EU is one of a high level of protection. Yet, this original rosy image is increasingly fading away, most visibly in the La Quadrature du Net litigation, which is a continuation of two dynamics. First, the Court is still cleaning up the residual mess that lingers on from the now annulled Data Retention Directive. Second, in so doing, it is incrementally allowing the Member States indiscriminately retain personal data. Hence, the Court is carving out space for Member States’ preferences to the detriment of the protection of the individual.
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Data Retention
The recent judgements of the CJEU on data retention should not be regarded as an authoritarian move towards a less fundamental rights-sensible position of the Court. Rather, the case law adapts the ever more complex development of the constitutional security law, which was originally dominated by the Member States. As a European court, the CJEU cannot simply ban certain police measures but must respect the complexity and heterogeneity of national law enforcement agencies.
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The Silence of the Israeli Supreme Court Judges
The arrest warrants by the ICC for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and former Defense Minister Yoav Gallant for alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity are a red card for the Israeli legal system indicating grave doubts whether the Israeli legal system fulfills the complementarity requirement. Paradoxically, an indictment on the Israeli justice system arrives after the Israeli Supreme Court has recently fortified its position. Yet, the more the Court expanded its reach into the political arena, the less it could fulfill its core role of defending basic human rights.
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Made-Up Principles
The Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Bill sparked remarkable protest in Parliament itself where Māori lawmakers used haka, a traditional Māori dance form, demonstrating strength and unity (the video went viral). It was also a key focus of what was likely the largest political protest ever seen at New Zealand’s Parliament, with 40,000-50,000 people descending on Parliament grounds and the surrounding streets on 19 November 2024. The Bill is so controversial because it would mean a change to the way in which rights and obligations under the Treaty of Waitangi are recognised in New Zealand law.
Continue reading >>Protecting Victims Without Mass Surveillance
Mass data retention is on the rise. In the current heyday of security packages in Germany, we are now witnessing a “super grand coalition” in favor of mandatory IP address retention. Some are calling for greater protection for victims through data retention. Yet, what one often overlooks is the following: The investigative capacities of law enforcement authorities have never been better, and the digital data pools that can be analyzed have never been larger. Hence, victims must be protected without mass surveillance.
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More Protection for Victims Through Data Retention
Mass data retention is all about proportionality. The threat level determines the proportionality of the means – both of which are subject to the perpetual flux of time. Data retention is intended to protect victims of digital crimes. To protect freedom online, our security services urgently need to be able to access stored IP addresses. The alarming developments in our security situation are calling many certainties from the past into question. This also involves a re-evaluation of traffic data retention.
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Eyes Everywhere
Ten years after its groundbreaking judgment declaring the Data Retention Directive incompatible with the EU Charter, the Full Court significantly eased its previously strict requirements. On 30 April 2024, it issued La Quadrature Du Net II and, for the first time, declared the general and indiscriminate retention of IP addresses permissible for the purpose of fighting general crime. Given the CJEU’s fundamental change of heart, we have gathered a range of scholars to contextualize the judgment and situate it within the broader debate on mass data retention, online surveillance, and anonymity.
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Keine allgemeine Verfassungsaufsicht über die Unionswerte im Vertragsverletzungsverfahren
Am 19. Dezember 2022 reichte die Europäische Kommission in der Rechtssache C-769/22 eine Vertragsverletzungsklage ein, in der sie im zweiten Klagegrund eine eigenständige Verletzung von Art. 2 EUV geltend machte. Dies löste eine breite Diskussion darüber aus, ob der EuGH seine Wertejudikatur in Zukunft so weiterentwickeln könnte, dass Art. 2 EUV auch als eigenständige Rechtsgrundlage herangezogen werden kann – ohne eine Verbindung zu spezifischen Bestimmungen des Unionsrechts.
Continue reading >>European Society Strikes Back
“This is a frontal and deep attack against the … European society.” With this remarkable statement the Commission has started the “largest human rights battle in EU history”: the infringement proceedings against the Hungarian anti-LGBTIQ* law. The Commission claims that this law breaches the internal market, the Charter rights and the Union’s common values enshrined in Article 2 TEU. The “mega hearing”, which took place on 19 November 2024, is now facing its ultimate test: can the Member States’ compliance with Article 2 TEU be reviewed before the Court of Justice?
Continue reading >>The European Banking Union Also Means Cross-Border Bank Consolidation
A heated debate on the risks of EU’s unfinished-effort to establish a Banking Union erupted on 11 September 2024, when the Milan-based UniCredit announced that it had amassed an equity stake of 9% in the Frankfurt-based rival Commerzbank. The German Chancellor quickly labelled UniCredit’s move an “unfriendly attack,” adding that the acquisition of Commerzbank is a threat to German financial stability. We argue that German authorities can hardly provide a legally-compelling justification to convince the ECB to reject UniCredit’s request on financial stability grounds.
Continue reading >>The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
In its recent decision in ST v Frontex the CJEU missed once again an opportunity to review Frontex's conduct in light of human rights standards. The decision is the latest in a series of key decisions concerning EU human rights responsibility over the course of the past year, including WS and Others v. Frontex, Hamoudi v. Frontex, Sea Watch v Frontex, as well as Kočner and KS and KD. This contribution explains how some of these cases perpetuate the shortcomings of the EU’s human rights responsibility regime, while others show the Court’s willingness and ability to redress these.
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Die stille Mehrheit hat ihre Stimme gefunden
Fünf Fragen an John Morijn und Luke Dimitrios Spieker
Continue reading >>The Silent Majority Has Found Its Voice
Five Questions to John Morijn and Luke Dimitrios Spieker
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Georgian Dream as a Nightmare for Democracy
The Georgian Dream Party has been declared as winner of the parliamentary election in Georgia. Independent observers, however, identified a large-scale, multi-faceted election-rigging scheme in favor of Georgian Dream, prompting calls to annul the results. These allegations triggered protests and sparked a debate about the future of democracy, and the rule of law in Georgia. Due to the absence of effective judicial oversight to address evidence of electoral fraud, public resistance and external pressure are crucial to preventing power capture by Georgian Dream and halting Georgia’s autocratic shift.
Continue reading >>Deporting the Enemy Within
Two weeks ago, the Israeli Knesset passed a law that grants the Minister of the Interior powers to deport family members of terrorists, including Israeli citizens. The logic of this law, its instrumentalization of legitimate security concerns to not just deny the rights and membership status of minority groups but attack the foundations of a constitutional system, is not unique to contemporary Israeli politics. As such, this logic needs confronting and refuting, and this law presents an important opportunity to do so.
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Taming the Brazilian Supreme Court
The recent Proposal for Constitutional Amendment No. 28/2024 weakens constitutional review by allowing Congress to suspend certain decisions of the Supreme Federal Court. This article identifies several exaggerated and premature criticisms present in the public debate. Additionally, it explores how models of weak judicial review, successfully integrated by numerous established democracies, may foster constitutional dialogues and collaboration, potentially reducing counter-majoritarian frictions and enhancing democratic principles.
Continue reading >>Observing the Elections in Venezuela
Electoral Observation Missions are vital to democracies worldwide. The case of Venezuela demonstrates their crucial importance: In the last presidential elections, the work of EOMs was able to confirm irregularities, which today keeps Venezuela under political pressure and added grounds for civil protest. Despite the severe repression that followed, the demand for electoral transparency remains, and sustains its validity in part thanks to the irreplaceable work of the EOMs.
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A Rare Win
In a rare win for the rights of asylum seekers in the first Greek asylum case making its way to Luxembourg, the CJEU has limited abusive uses of the safe third country concept that had condemned applicants to legal limbo. In its ruling on 4 October 2024, the Court left Greece’s designation of Türkiye as a safe third country intact. Nonetheless, the case will still have a significant impact on asylum applicants. This post sets out the practical effects of the judgment on people applying for asylum in Greece and beyond.
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The Brumadinho Disaster
In 2019, the rupture of a dam in Brumadinho unleashed a “torrent” of mining waste, destroying homes, contaminating the Paraopeba River, and killing 270 people. The dam was owned by the mining company Vale and its safety audited by the German TÜV Süd. More than five years later, no one has been held accountable. However, according to international human rights standards, the Brazilian state must hold companies accountable.
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The Visible and The Invisible of Justice in Strasbourg
Former ECtHR Vice-President Prof. Dr. Angelika Nußberger and current ECtHR Judge Dr. Kateřina Šimáčková discuss judges’ responsibility to provide relief to applicants. Focal points are recent procedural reforms affecting access to justice, the extensive yet often overlooked judicial work that does not result in published decisions, the persistent challenge of achieving gender balance on the bench, and their own personal legacies.
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Stiefmütterliche Behandlung
Mit dem Ampel-Aus ist die dringend erwartete Reform des Abstammungsrechts für Zwei-Mütter-Familien in weite Ferne gerückt. Geplant war, nach der „Ehe für alle“ auch ein „Abstammungsrecht für alle“ zu schaffen, und insbesondere eine automatische Mit-Mutterschaft einzuführen. Eine aktuelle Entscheidung des EGMR in dem Fall R.F. und andere gegen Deutschland hätte neuen Schwung in die Sache bringen können. Stattdessen hat der EGMR viel zu spät und am eigentlichen Problem vorbei entschieden.
Continue reading >>Feminist Killjoy…But With a Heart
India is currently witnessing a spate of protests against gender-based violence targeted towards women. The rape and murder of a trainee doctor in Kolkata, allegations against influential figures of the Malayalam film industry, and wrestler Vinesh Phogat’s accusations of sexual harassment against BJP leader Brij Bhushan Sharan Singh have led to demands for stricter legal consequences. However, I urge feminists to eschew reliance on the punitive state. It is paramount that feminists “break the wheel” and not adopt the tools of the oppressor by advocating for punishment, shame, and stigma.
Continue reading >>Armenia’s Constitutional Catch-22
In October 2024, the presidents of Armenia and Azerbaijan simultaneously approved a Protocol regulating the joint work of their respective border delimitation commissions. The protocol’s enactment in both countries became possible after Armenia’s Constitutional Court issued a landmark Decision No. 1749 on 26 September 2024, confirming that the border delimitation agreement complied with Armenia’s Constitution. However, the Court’s Decision traps Armenia in a legal and political Catch-22.
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Political Resistance and Two Dirty Words
On November 6, Donald Trump won the 2024 presidential election in a landslide, winning all Swing States and the popular vote. Given the dire consequences of Trump’s second presidency looming on the horizon, it would be natural for Democrats’ reactions to include some of English’s finest swear words, the f- and the s- words in particular. But besides swearing being impolite, there are at least two other dirty words to consider: Federalism and (State) Sovereignty. It is time to use them for progressive purposes and shield Democrat states against excessive overreach by the Trump administration, as some had already suggested during the first Trump presidency
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Into Reverse Gear
The recent Hague Court of Appeal judgment, in the appeal brought by Shell against the first instance decision in favour of the NGO Milieudefensie, held that Shell is legally obliged to reduce its scope 3 emissions, but did not order Shell to reduce them by 45%, or indeed any percentage. The judgment is likely to have a significant impact on climate change litigation against corporations beyond just the Netherlands. That impact will be all the greater if the losing parties, Milieudefensie and others, do not appeal.
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Towards a Bundle of Duties
This week’s decision in Shell v Milieudefensie from the Hague Court of Appeals seemed like a blow to climate litigation: Milieudefensie was ultimately unsuccessful in convincing the Court that it could transpose a global requirement for 45% emissions reductions by 2030 into an obligation for a particular actor. Yet, the Court of Appeals decision marks considerable progress in how we understand the civil liability of large Dutch economic actors for their contributions to climate change.
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An Antidote To Constitutional Authoritarian Populism?
Presidential reelection is once more a focal point in Latin American constitutional law. The amendment to the 2010 Dominican Constitution, approved in October 2024, modifies the presidential term to bar future changes that would permit unlimited presidential reelection. This reform opposes the populist trend that argues for the people’s unconditional right to reelect the incumbent president, as witnessed in Venezuela and Chile. However, as cases like El Salvador demonstrate, constitutional design may be insufficient to deter abusive interpretations by constitutional courts.
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Silent Prayer vs Safe Access
In line with a broader trend, all three jurisdictions in the United Kingdom now have Safe Access Zones legislation that creates a protective area around premises where abortion services are provided. Specified behaviours are criminalised within these protective areas, with silent prayer being a common challenge. I argue that the UK Safe Access Zones legislation demonstrates a cautious approach that protects a pregnant person’s right to access lawful abortion services in conditions of dignity and privacy.
Continue reading >>Lessons of a Landmark Lost
On 12 November 2024, the Hague Court of Appeal in Shell v Milieudefensie set aside the preceding 2021 judgment which held Shell responsible for its contribution to climate change. The 2021 judgment was widely heralded (though also critiqued) as groundbreaking and a precedent that could be followed elsewhere. While the Appeal judgment is unlikely to receive similar praise from climate activists, it contains important lessons regarding the responsibility of multinational companies for their contributions to climate change.
Continue reading >>A Piece of Advice
In this blog post, we discuss two pieces of advice about the legal and political consequences for the Netherlands arising from the policies and practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. These are the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion of July 2024 and the Advisory Letter from the Dutch Advisory Council on International Affairs of October 2024. Both pieces of advice provide concrete recommendations, many of which, in our view, require fundamental changes in the current Dutch policy regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Dutch Government is constitutionally obliged to provide a meaningful response to both these pieces of advice. So far, however, it has failed to do so.
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Hansa Mehta
Imagine if the very first article of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 1948, referred “all men”, rather than “all human beings”, and asked us all to act in the spirit of “brotherhood”. Thankfully, that is not how it reads, and for this, credit is due to an Indian woman: Hansa Mehta, whose contribution UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres recognized in his speech celebrating 70 years of the UDHR when he said: “without her, we would literally be speaking of Rights of Man rather than Human Rights.”
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Rising Gender Disparity at the CJEU
With the recent swearing-in of Judges and Advocates-General at the CJEU in October 2024, the number of women has decreased. Among the new cohort of 11 Judges and AG arriving in Luxembourg, only one new woman was appointed to the CoJ. There are currently 5 women Judges out of the 27 positions at the CoJ. Among the 11 Advocates-General, only 3 are women. We urge Member States to intensify efforts for gender parity and to reform their domestic nomination processes. Finally, we call on the 255 Committee to guarantee full gender parity.
Continue reading >>Farewell to the Rules-Based Order
As political analysts debate the reasons for Trump’s victory, one contributing factor is surely the utter failure of Biden’s Gaza policies. As the US has continued to fund an Israeli war of annihilation against Gaza, the democratic ticket became a hard sell for many who care about Palestinians. Yet, Gaza has also triggered a veritable renaissance of international litigation. With Gaza destroyed and Trump in the White House, this tension may have reached a terminal point. And yet, I argue, the ghost of a rule-based order lingers in our political imagination despite its inability to shape outcomes.
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Is This a Constitutional Democracy
Indonesia, a country that has experimented with constitutional democracy since 1998, inaugurated its new president, Prabowo Subianto, on October 20, 2024. His so-called “Red and White Cabinet” may appear peculiar from the perspective of Western democracies due to its concentration of power. Prabowo assembled a “bloated cabinet” of 48 ministers constituting a hodge-podge of anti-Sharia pluralists, nationalists, Islamists, and others, all swearing fealty to the magico-religious Pancasila. We argue that Prabowo’s cabinet parallels the “family state”, which envisions the state as a large Indonesian family working together to maintain familial harmony.
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Towards Universal Criminalisation
“Italy Criminalises Surrogacy from Abroad, a Blow to Gay and Infertile Couples.” This was the headline on the New York Times website following the approval of a law in Italy criminalising reproductive tourism. Giorgia Meloni had already introduced the bill, Act no. 824, in the last Parliament, and the current right-wing majority has now passed it. The news has gone around the world. Let us try to understand why.
Continue reading >>Art. 21 DSA Has Come to Life
Art. 21 DSA is a new, unusual and interesting framework to settle disputes over online content moderation decisions. By now, the first four online dispute settlement bodies (ODS-bodies) have been certified, and most of them have already started taking cases. In this article, based on recent interviews with representatives from all certified bodies, I will explore how these very first ODS-bodies are set up and which very first experiences they have made.
Continue reading >>The Tail That Wags the Dog
In Opinion 2/13 the Court of Justice held that accession to the ECHR must not interfere with the operation of the principle of mutual trust as this would affect the autonomy of EU law. I offer a different reading: mutual trust is not a general principle capable of having autonomous legal effects. Furthermore, mutual trust is acquiring a novel value for the progressive operationalisation of the foundational values ex Article 2 TEU. Read in this way, it has then the potential to enhance fundamental rights protection and is certainly no bar to accession to the ECHR – it is the dog of core values that wags the tail of mutual trust and not vice versa.
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Two Courts, Two Visions
The diverging standards of protection concerning the right to a fair trial, as interpreted by the CJEU and the ECtHR, remain a critical obstacle to the EU’s renewed attempt at accession to the ECHR. In this field, the two Courts seem to be drifting further apart rather than converging, leading to unresolved conflicts between the standard of fundamental rights protection and mutual trust obligations in the EU. Except in the unlikely event of a course-correction by the CJEU, this means that we are no closer to accession today than we were ten years ago, when the now-infamous Opinion 2/13 was handed down.
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Enhancing Fundamental Rights Protection
The EU should ensure fundamental rights’ compatibility of EU legislation before its adoption. To that effect, we propose three distinct paths to improve the EU control mechanisms. Whilst mechanisms to ensure quality control do exist, primarily in the form of impact assessments, these mostly remain a merely formal exercise. Henceforth, we suggest strengthening the ex ante fundamental rights review of EU legislation through enhanced involvement of FRA in the legislative process.
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Of Artificial Intelligence and Fundamental Rights Charters
The Council of Europe has adopted the Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence – the first of its kind. Notably, the Framework Convention includes provisions specifically tailored to enable the EU’s participation. At the same time, the EU has developed its own framework around AI. I argue that the EU should adopt the Framework Convention, making an essential first step toward integrating the protection of fundamental rights of the EU Charter. Ultimately, this should create a common constitutional language and bridge the EU and the Council of Europe to strengthen fundamental rights in Europe.
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Framing Fear
In the appraisal of international threats, seldom is media discourse included as an essential element of study. This post suggests that no analysis of international or European security is complete without considering the impact of mass media in shaping public perceptions of legal realities.
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Stuck Between Unity and Diversity
The role of the EU Charter in disputes concerning fundamental rights standards between the EU and Member States has been characterized by ambiguity ever since the Charter’s inception. As the EU deepens integration of Member States to effectively face the challenges ahead, I advocate for a pluralistic interpretation of Article 53 of the Charter that allows for a greater degree of accommodation of national particularities. In that way, one would reduce constitutional tensions and find that there may be unity in diversity after all.
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Interviewing EU Judges
Who are the women and men behind the CJEU’s decisions? The CJEU is an incredibly powerful institution, yet little is known about the backgrounds, judicial philosophies, and ambitions of its judges and advocates general. The Union’s “Help Desk,” as CJEU President Koen Lenaerts modestly describes the Court, is now interpreting broad-ranging rules while also giving legal meaning to ambitious and ambiguous values such as the rule of law. This is where the Borderlines archive comes in – we interview the judges and advocates general of the Court of Justice, to learn about their backgrounds, varied experiences, and their jurisprudential philosophies.
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The Messiah and His Oligarchs
On Power, Personalities and Populism.
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Three Takeaways from the Nearly Failed EU Referendum in Moldova
Moldova’s accelerated path towards the European Union nearly came to an abrupt halt. On 20 October 2024, the people of Moldova participated in a referendum asking whether they "support amending the Constitution with a view to Moldova's accession to the European Union". While massive Russian interference in the election process is evident (though the full proportion remains yet to be investigated), it would be too short-sighted and also dangerous for Moldova’s future path towards the EU to attribute the outcome of the referendum solely to external interference.
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Who Gets to Define Jewish Identity in Germany?
The German Bundestag is soon expected to vote on a resolution on “protecting Jewish life in Germany” that would tie public funding for culture and science to compliance with the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) definition of antisemitism. While IHRA’s potential in curbing Palestinians’ political speech has been largely studied, another set of problems should warrant additional attention: the definition’s potential to regulate Jewish political identity into a singular version: one that coincides with the state of Israel. In doing so, it gives the state regulatory power to decide on what is, in fact, a burning question within Jewish circles.
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Reconciling National and European Constitutional Legalities
In light of the increasingly established autonomous European constitutional legality, national constitutional courts are now compelled to reconsider their roles. Through a progressive expansion of its direct applicability by national ordinary judges, the Charter of Fundamental Rights risks fostering the marginalization of national constitutional courts. I argue that the solution lies in a highly differentiated consolidation of constitutional legalities that integrates and embraces the unique roles of national constitutional courts in their respective systems of adjudication.
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Pouring New Wine into Old Wineskins
The three seemingly trivial observations that follow inform three substantive proposals regarding the protection of fundamental rights within the EU. To address the challenges faced by national constitutional courts and the CJEU, it is essential to leverage existing procedural tools within domestic legal systems. Additionally, expanding the applicability of these versatile tools and considering a structural revision of the judicial bodies may facilitate the creation of hybrid entities that could collaboratively address major issues, thereby steering constitutional developments in the EU.
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The right lessons from Trump 1.0
The US withdrawal from international institutions is a broader trend, not solely tied to Trump-era policies. Consequently, European governments that aim to preserve the rules-based international order should be prepared to take the lead and fill the gap left by the US exit. To pursue this strategy effectively, certain imperatives must be addressed.
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Maintaining Resilience in Human Rights Interpretation
In the Religious Movement Advisory Opinion, the European Court of Human Rights established detailed risk and proportionality assessment criteria that deviate from its previous case law in individual applications. The Court thus seems eager to embrace its standard-setting role and the spirit of dialogue inherent in the advisory opinion procedure, indicating some potential for resilience in rights interpretation within this sensitive context.
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Courts, Constitutions and Authoritarian Consolidation in Pakistan
In 2024, Pakistan has moved in a decisively authoritarian direction. The civilian and military hybrid ruling coalition that came to power in 2022 is using electoral engineering and constitutional entrenchment to consolidate power in the face of popular discontent and resilient political opposition. This process of electoral and constitutional consolidation does not move forward unimpeded, without resistance, and requires capturing and coordinating state institutions. In this blogpost, I show that formal constitutional safeguards provided little protection against the hybrid regime’s capture and weaponization of electoral monitoring bodies.
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Fundamental Rights Come Off the Bench
In 2014, the European Court of Justice clearly prioritised the EU’s position on the unity and effectiveness of EU law over the protection of fundamental rights (Opinion 2/13). Ten years later, in October 2024, a judgment pitting football against the media seems to have turned the tables. In Real Madrid vs Le Monde, the Court held that excessive defamation damages may breach the freedom of the press and trigger the public policy exception. This is a significant shift, prioritising fundamental rights protection over the traditional objective of seamless judicial cooperation across the EU.
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Why the EU Charter Matters
This blog post argues that the most interesting aspect of the Charter of Fundamental Rights at the moment is its impact on remedies in national law. Almost 15 years since its entry into force, it is not unusual to meet domestic lawyers and judges who will voice doubts as to whether the Charter really matters in practice. Yet, through the right to an effective remedy under Article 47, the Charter opens up domestic law for new (or modified) remedies, thus placing national procedural autonomy under greater constraint than it was from the principles of effectiveness and equivalence.
Continue reading >>Beyond the Letter of the Treaties
In the context of the EU’s intention to accede to the ECHR, the CJEU, through its recent case-law on restrictive measures, shapes the scope of its jurisdiction in CFSP matters and opens up new prospects for the future architecture of the EU legal order. The first part of this post recalls how the Court’s case-law on restrictive measures contributed to the constitutionalization of the CFSP through the extension of its jurisdiction in the matter. The second part presents the challenges posed by the most recent cases on EU sanctions and the possible implications of the Court’s responses.
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Whither, the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights
So, has the Charter come of age, now that it is nearing its quarter century, and has been binding in force for nearly 15 of those years. No longer is the Charter a “sleeping beauty”, and no longer are fundamental rights mere epiphenomena in EU law – offshoots framed in the amorphous category of “general principles of law” – creations of the EU’s earlier desire for legitimacy in its quest for greater integration. The EU Charter contains the essence of a common language, a currency that all can understand. And the EU is better with it than without it.
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The EU Charter’s Odyssey
Since its inception, the Union has grown into a tremendously powerful political actor through ever-increasing legal harmonization. This development has significantly marginalized the role of national apex courts – the lighthouses of democracy. Moreover, the globally observed trajectory of authoritarian forces is shaking EU's roots and questioning the vision of a lasting European polity. To fend off all these challenges, the Union should be centred around the hard-won humanistic freedoms and common values defined in the Charter, serving as a basis for common identification and a canvas to project shared visions of a political entity.
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The Political Question Doctrine Under Close Control
The political question doctrine is a controversial admissibility requirement that intersects the rule of law and separation of powers. Based on recent ECtHR and ECJ judgments, this blog post highlights the need to evaluate the doctrine within a broader framework of legal accountability.
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Managing Migration the Italian Way
The Italy-Albania deal provides a new, some say innovative, approach to externalization in migration procedures. It differs from the current EU toolbox, raising issues related to these differences and the treatment of procedural rights. Where these issues arise and how they will be litigated nationally and/or in front of the ECJ is unclear but will shape migration discourses beyond Italy.
Continue reading >>A Leap Forward for Biodiversity Litigation
On 23 October, 2024, BUND (Friends of the Earth Germany) and several individuals filed a constitutional complaint mirroring the Neubauer case, but directed at the biodiversity crisis. The claimants seek a declaration from the Federal Constitutional Court (FCC) that the lack of a coherent scheme for the protection of biodiversity infringes fundamental rights and seek an order from the court for the legislature to take the necessary measures to adopt an appropriate, legally binding protection scheme within a clear timeline. This case presents a significant development in the field of strategic biodiversity litigation as the first systemic government framework case. It can be seen as the Urgenda of biodiversity litigation.
Continue reading >>The Missing Chapter
The European Commission’s Annual Rule of Law Report aims to prevent further rule of law backsliding within the EU by examining the rule of law situation in Member States. However, the report is missing an important chapter: the EU itself. On 28 October 2024, the Rule of Law Clinic (CEU Democracy Institute, Budapest), together with experts from across Europe, began bridging this gap by publishing the first report on EU adherence to rule of law standards. Without a meaningful self-assessment of its own compliance with rule of law principles, the EU weakens its credibility, particularly when addressing systemic non-compliance with EU law by Member States.
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On a Knife’s Edge
Launching our Series on the 2024 US Elections
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Football at a Crossroads
The CJEU shook the world of football with its Diarra ruling on Friday, October 4. The impact of the ruling is all but a surprise for me. In a way, the FIFA transfer system was always on shaky legal grounds in terms of EU internal market law. Now, the chickens have come home to roost and key parts of the football transfer system have been brutally set aside. I aim to explain why the Diarra ruling marks a crucial turning point for football, its economy and even its identity.
Continue reading >>Why Teaching International Law Should Be an Antiracist Endeavour
Teaching international law as an antiracist endeavour is essential for addressing the historical and systemic biases that continue to shape the field. The text argues that by diversifying the curriculum, employing critical pedagogy techniques, and promoting active learning and engagement, educators can help students develop a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of international law and its impact on diverse populations.
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Do Sanctions Work?
After Rhodesia's 1965 unilateral declaration of independence, which upheld white minority rule, sanctions were imposed to challenge the regime. However, support from allies like South Africa helped circumvent these restrictions, revealing the limitations and mixed effectiveness of sanctions.
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Getting a Grip on Migration but Mind European Law!
On September 13, the new Dutch government led by Dick Schoof outlined its programme for the next years. Unsurprisingly, a major point of this programme regards asylum and migration, for which the greatest ambition is to install the strictest regime ever and to include the Netherlands within the category of Member States of the European Union with the strictest admission rules. This post reviews these proposals through the lens of European Law to challenge their legal feasibility and flag the potential incompatibility with Dutch obligations stemming from EU and international law.
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Why Offshore Processing of Asylum Applications is Actually Racist
With the Rwanda scheme, the UK government unleashes a regime of offshore asylum processing which is being considered by countries around the world. Such schemes though may be considered racist for their obvious neocolonial implications of removing and returning asylum seekers and refugees from the global north to the global south. More importantly though, such schemes undermine the commitment to abide by international human rights law and the obligations which attach to states in a particular rather than vicarious sense.
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Addressing Racial Discrimination Through International Law
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination’s design makes it a very promising legal instrument to combat racial discrimination in particular regarding its structural manifestations. Expecting this legal framework to be of use in combatting racism is not unrealistic, but is hindered by the lack of visibility of the Convention, a lack of resources for the Convention system, and, above all, the lack of political will of States to effectively implement their obligations under the Convention.
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Fractured Foundations and Pakistan’s Kafkaesque Constitutional Amendment
Pakistan is in the throes of yet another constitutional crisis. The ruling coalition government, which is heavily criticized for coming to power through blatantly rigged elections in February 2024, launched a campaign to amend the 1973 Constitution in significant ways. After weeks of speculation, the federal cabinet approved a draft on Sunday afternoon, which was approved by the Senate later the same evening. The National Assembly approved the draft today around 5 a.m., with the President assenting shortly thereafter.
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European Media Freedom Act and the Jigsaw of the “Parliamentarized” Italian RAI
Italian public media broadcaster RAI faces challenges in depoliticization amidst the European Media Freedom Act obligations. Its “parlamentarized” governance model is a risk for political capture in a politically loaded environment.
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Tackling Israel’s Interference with the International Criminal Court
On 8 October 2024, The Guardian reported that a criminal complaint had been filed in the Netherlands in connection with the shocking (yet unsurprising) revelations published by The Guardian, +972 Magazine, and Local Call on 28 May concerning hostile state activities targeting the International Criminal Court (ICC). The criminal complaint is both timely and viable and should lead to the expeditious opening of an investigation by the Dutch prosecution service. The political response by the Dutch and other governments of ICC States so far is insufficient to address the problem of interference with the ICC investigation in the Situation in the State of Palestine.
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Exploring Intersectionality as a Concept to Effectively Combat Racism and Racial and Ethnic Discrimination
The contribution promotes the concept of intersectionality as a means of addressing the gap between what anti-racism law promises and what it delivers. Then, nationality serves as an example to illustrate if and how intersectionality can affect anti-racism law.
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Anti-Black Racism
Drawing on conversations with a queer interlocutor who moved to Austria to escape persecution in their country of origin, I reflect on the limits of legal protection in the host country when and if it is not accompanied by social change. I focus on the tension introduced by anti-black racism that comes in the way of queer solidarity.
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How the judgment by the German Federal Constitutional Court on the German debt brake entrenches climate injustice
Germany, as a major greenhouse gas emitter, has a critical obligation to support developing countries affected by climate change; however, its adherence to the constitutional “debt brake” undermines this responsibility and exacerbates global inequalities.
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Non-Retrogression as Progress
Latin America has often led the way in protecting the right to health, particularly in regulating risk factors such as tobacco and unhealthy diets. However, some of these advancements have recently been jeopardized as governments prioritize private economic interests over health. Judicialization has thus emerged as an opportunity – perhaps the only one – to defend progress achieved. Given recent judicial rulings in Uruguay and Ecuador, we reflect on the fragility of legal interventions that threaten powerful economic interests, as well as on the opportunities offered by human rights-based litigation.
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„Es gibt nur eine moralisch, rechtlich und strategisch vertretbare Antwort: ein Waffenembargo“
Fünf Fragen an Janina Dill
Continue reading >>“There is only one morally, legally and strategically defensible choice: an arms embargo”
Five Questions to Janina Dill
Continue reading >>The Strictest Asylum Policy Ever?
On 13 September 2024, ahead of the presentation of the State Budget, the new Dutch coalition presented their finalized plan to implement what it has labelled as the strictest admission regime ever in the field of asylum law. To implement its Outline Agreement, titled ‘Hope, Courage and Pride,’ the government plans to rely on an derogation provision in the Dutch Aliens Act 2000. We argue that the provision does not apply to the current situation and that the Dutch government therefore does not have the jurisdiction to render parts of the Dutch Aliens Act 2000 inoperative.
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Taking Back Control?
This week, the Polish government unveiled its new migration strategy which lays out a proposal that, “in the event of a threat to destabilize the country by an influx of immigrants, it should be possible to temporarily and territorially suspend the right to accept asylum applications.” This blog argues that the proposal is not only unlawful but also poses a threat to the common European asylum system. This is so especially in light of the upcoming implementation of the New Pact on Migration and Asylum, a set of new rules managing migration and establishing a common asylum system at EU level.
Continue reading >>Anti-Racism Law and its Limits
By drawing upon insights of sociolegal thought, feminism and the US social context, this contribution argues that anti-racism law’s apparent ineffectiveness stems from its reliance on the inherently vague concept of “race”.
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Nine Months Into Chaos
Ecuador is nine months away from the chaotic events of 9 January 2024: attacks and the seizure of a live newscast by members of organized crime, the consequent declaration of an “internal armed conflict” by the Presidency and the designation of 22 organized crime groups as “military targets”. This social and political process which has transformed the country is not yet fully understood and merits reflection on several key aspects of this ongoing dynamic.
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Apartheid or Systemic Discrimination?
This contribution argues that, reading between the lines, the expression “systemic discrimination”, which the Court referred to in para. 223 of the Advisory Opinion, was used as a synonym for “apartheid”, even though the Court did not link this description to a breach of Article 3 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, but there does not appear to be any substantial difference between apartheid and systemic discrimination. This is because the word systemic is associated with crimes against humanity which is how apartheid is defined as a crime in international law.
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Unleashing Horizontal State Liability
The Common European Asylum System (CEAS) is under attack. In a recent Judgment against Hungary, the European Court of Justice has unambiguously stated that non-compliance with the rules of the CEAS undermines solidarity between Member States and strikes at the very heart of EU law. Traditional means of enforcement, however, seem insufficient to foster compliance with these rules. Against this backdrop, this blogpost argues for the unexplored avenue for enforcing the CEAS via horizontal state liability.
Continue reading >>Fundamental Rights Score a Goal
Amid the significant number of rulings delivered by the ECJ on 4 October 2024, the long-awaited judgment pitting football against the media stands out. In Real Madrid vs Le Monde, the Court held that excessive defamation damages may breach the freedom of the press and trigger the public policy exception under Brussels Ia Regulation concerning recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. In doing so, the ECJ allowed national courts to conduct a substantive review of foreign judgments despite the principle of mutual trust, to ensure the enforcement of fundamental rights across the EU.
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The ICJ Advisory Opinion and Israeli Law
This post examines the relationship between the Advisory Opintion and Israeli law with respect to the duty to distinguish between Israel and the OPT. While the Opinion requires States to distinguish between Israel and the OPT in their dealings with Israel, and to omit acts that may strengthen Israel’s hold of the Territories, calls for such distinction are a civil tort under Israeli law, and those making them can be denied entry to Israel. As a result, Israelis are unlikely to support the Opinion. This will contribute to the growing gap between the international discourse and the domestic discourse in Israel with respect to the OPT.
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German Police Controls and Structural Racism
Police operations such as stops are prone for patterns of racial profiling. The contribution looks into the role of the new federal police commissioner (Polizeibeauftragte des Bundes) and his tools to address this.
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Admissibility Revisited
In an effort to force the European Union to adopt more ambitious climate targets, two environmental NGOs initiated a proceeding before the EU General Court, invoking the rarely used mechanism of “internal review” under the EU’s Aarhus Regulation. The reason for this unusual approach lies within a reoccurring issue of climate litigation: overcoming restrictive admissibility requirements. This new approach follows a path that had not yet been considered by legal scholarship or practice. While the line of argument is rather innovative, it goes beyond the boundaries of the Aarhus Regulation and is therefore likely to fail.
Continue reading >>The Findings of the ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Oslo Accords and the Amici Curiae Proceedings before the ICC in the Situation of Palestine
This article focuses on the legal findings of the ICJ concerning the Oslo II Accord, and argues in favour of its relevance in deciding the jurisdictional question raised by the UK before the International Criminal Court (ICC). It also addresses whether invoking this question through a procedure of an amicus curiae during the warrant of arrest stage fits neatly within the ICC’s procedural regime, and it concludes that it does not.
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Unmasking the Intractable
The first contribution of the online symposium explores the ineffectiveness of anti-racism laws. It raises the leading question whether their underperformance is a result of unrealistic expectations regarding the potential of law in general, or whether inherent flaws in legal design are the root cause.
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Non-Recognition and Non-Assistance
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) not only made it crystal clear that Israeli occupation is illegal in every respect – by itself a challenge for Western foreign offices as they face reproaches for double standards. The Court also added a number of paragraphs detailing the legal consequences of the Advisory Opinion for UN Member States.
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Unseating the Israeli Government from the UN General Assembly in case of non-compliance with the Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024
This post analyses the possibility of unseating the Israeli Government from the UN General Assembly in case of non-compliance with the Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024. The Advisory Opinion provides a particularly strong legal basis – grounded primarily in the right to self-determination – to unseat Israel’s government from the General Assembly until it complies with the Opinion – as the Assembly did with South Africa fifty years ago.
Continue reading >>New Structure, New Priorities
Von der Leyen has recently unveiled the new structure of the next Commission. At first sight it looks like a relatively light structure composed of only three hierarchical levels: the President on top, six Executive Vice-Presidents in the middle and the Commissioners at the bottom. However, as this post will argue, the new Commission is likely to become more hierarchical and less coordinated than before. Moreover, the new structure also reflects changing priorities that will lead to a less green agenda and increased competitiveness of the EU.
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Taking Locus Standi of International Actors Seriously
On October 4th 2024 the Court of Justice issued its judgement in Front Polisario II upholding the judgement in which GC annulled Council’s decision on the conclusion of the trade agreement between European Union and Morocco. In its landmark judgement the Court acknowledged the legal standing of Front Polisario – the liberation movement representing rights of the people of Western Sahara. The Court’s findings advance the flexible and adequate approach on access to EU’s courts – and for that are worth applauding.
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Bridging the CFSP Gap
The CJEU interprets its Common Foreign and Security Policy jurisdiction in light of the objectives set by the Lisbon Treaty, thereby integrating part and parcel of the CFSP into the rest of the European Union acquis. This aligns the CFSP with the general principles and constitutional rules set in the Treaty. As the Court advances the integration of CFSP jurisdiction within the broader EU legal order, the judgements of 10 September 2024 in Neves 77 Solutions and KS and KD v Council and Others serve as landmark ruling for the future of judicial review in CFSP.
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The Obligation of Non-recognition, Occupation and the OPT Advisory Opinion
In the OPT Advisory Opinion, the ICJ considered that Israel’s abuse of its position as an Occupying Power, through de jure and de facto annexation of the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT) and continued frustration of the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination, renders Israel’s presence in the OPT unlawful. In determining the legal consequences of this illegal presence, the Court held by a vote of 12:3, that all States are under an obligation “not to recognize as legal the situation arising from the unlawful presence of the State Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory”. This holding was not accompanied by any concretization in either the Advisory Opinion or any of the many declarations and separate opinions attached to it.
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Legislating Reproductive Rights
In May, the Brazilian parliament introduced a bill that included a gestational age limit for performing abortions, even in cases where the pregnancy resulted from rape. In practice, the bill would criminalize women who were victims of sexual violence, especially young girls. The proposal triggered a strong reaction from civil society, which ultimately prompted parliament to withdraw the bill. The case illustrates how the Brazilian parliament has become a dangerous place for women’s sexual and reproductive rights – a situation that has worsened due to an institutional dispute between the parliament and the constitutional court.
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Limiting ‘Security’ as a Justification in the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion
While international law accepts that States may employ otherwise prohibited actions in exceptional circumstances and within certain constraints, the Advisory Opinion firmly affirms that security cannot justify illegal actions such as annexation or prolonged occupation. The rights of the Palestinian people, including their right to self-determination, cannot be compromised by security claims. The Advisory Opinion serves to limit State practices predicated upon security when those practices violate essential rights and when the security claim is based upon an illegal situation created by the very State which invokes security concerns.
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Security Considerations, the Duty to End Belligerent Occupations and the ICJ Advisory Opinion on Israeli practices and policies in the Occupied Palestinian Territory
This contribution discusses three possible rationales for the Court’s rejection of the relevance of Israel’s security concerns: Lack of proof of serious and legitimate security concerns by Israel, the insufficiency of broad security concerns to justify the continued use of force, and the insufficiency of broad security concerns to deny realization of Palestinian self-determination. As long as international law doctrine on the duty to end a belligerent occupation despite the prevalence of serious security concerns remains contested, and as long as security conditions in the region remain extremely unstable, it is unlikely that a withdrawal will be deemed practicable
Continue reading >>Uber knows. Do you?
Law shapes and is shaped by the contemporary, dominant economic system. This contribution illustrates this finding by the case of Uber.
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The ICJ’s Treatment of Questions of Occupation in Gaza
The ICJ’s treatment of the state of occupation in Gaza is questionable. While it rightly accepted the functional approach to occupation, I doubt whether Israel was indeed capable of exercising its authority in Gaza sufficiently for its occupation to be found as having continued post-2005. The Court should have relied on Israel’s continued exercise of administrative authority vis-a-vis Gaza residents to find the existence of a state of occupation.
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The Functional Approach as Lex Lata
The ICJ has de facto adopted the functional approach to occupation with regard to Gaza. The Opinion is thus a critical point in the development of the law of occupation, in that it transcends a binary approach to the question of the existence of occupation, in favour of a more nuanced approach that enables holding that a territory is occupied, but not in an “all or nothing” way. More generally, the Opinion as rejects a more restrictive approach to the question of whether occupation exists in a territory or not in favour of a more flexible approach.
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The Advisory Opinion on Israel’s Policies and Practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territory
This post analyses the separation between jus ad bellum / in bello as arising from the Advisory Opinion of the ICJ. This separation was challenged by many States appearing before the Court, some of which implied that Israel’s policies and practices, as violations of jus in bello, rendered the occupation unlawful under jus ad bellum. The Court ultimately reaffirmed the separation with a twofold argument, namely qualifying the ‘legality of the occupation’ as a jus ad bellum question, and framing Israel’s policies and practices (prolonged occupation, annexation, and settlement policy) as violations of jus ad bellum.
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From Illegal Annexation to Illegal Occupation: The Missing Link in the Reasoning of the International Court of Justice
The Court’s determination that Israel’s annexation policies render its continued presence in the West Bank unlawful finds no basis in the international prohibition against the use of force. Moreover, the Court’s determination circumvents the Law of State Responsibility that determines the consequences of Israel’s unlawful annexation policies.
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Privatization for whom?
Almost every contribution to the symposium shows that it is not possible to import LPE positions from the US without friction. At the same time, an LPE Europe research agenda exists that is theoretically sound and embedded in a concretising practice. This could be used to reorganise important social infrastructures in a stable, climate-friendly and innovative way.
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Drop Bothsideism
Western media are not equipped to handle right-wing populists like Donald Trump, Orbán, or the AfD. Moreover, constitutional theorists who argue that democracy should be purely procedural are joining the populist chorus. In our current age of populism we keep telling ourselves that everyone’s voice is always equally valid – also when based on lies and disinformation. It’s just another “point of view”. What populism has undermined is the right but also the courage to call out those who deliberately spread lies as well as those who in doing so openly use democratic institutions to destroy democracy.
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The Role of Private Law in Times of Polycrisis
Crises are a good test case, not only to check the practical performance of the law, but also to gain conceptual clarity about the possibilities of (certain areas of) the law. This post compares a German regulatory approach to private law with the US Law and Political Economy movement.
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A Seismic Change
It is no understatement to say that the 19 July 2024 ICJ Advisory Opinion constitutes a seismic change in the international law and practice on the question of Palestine. In one fell swoop, the ICJ has shifted what was hitherto an almost exclusive focus of the international community on how Israel has administered its 57-year occupation of the Occupied Palestinian Territory under International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law, to the requirement that Israel end its occupation of that territory as “rapidly as possible”.
Continue reading >>The Legality of the Occupation and the Problem of Double Effect
The conflict between Israel and Palestine, or more accurately, between the two Peoples, has persisted for over a century. A tragic reminder of the unbearable costs of this conflict is the deadly October 7 attack by Hamas on Israel, and the ensuing war, which has led to horrific consequences, with thousands of Israelis and Palestinians killed, many severely injured, and extensive damage to the civilian infrastructure in the Gaza Strip. In these circumstances, an important question arises: what role should international law and international tribunals play in mitigating the grave harm to all those involved in the conflict?
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Steward Ownership, Wealth Inequality, and LPE
Among the many crises challenging our societies is the inequality crisis. The central role of law in creating and addressing this crisis is not sufficiently recognized. What do “Steward Ownership” and “Law and Political Economy” might have to offer in this regard?
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And, of course, Climate Change
Scholarly debates on climate change law in general and climate change litigation more specifically and the recent LPE debates mutually enrich each other. Surprisingly, the interaction of those two fields of study – while evoked frequently – remains underdeveloped.
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Resurrected Colonial Courts and the Decolonization of the Chagos Archipelago
This post tells the fascinating story of two recent and remarkable developments in the decolonization of the Chagos Archipelago. Last week, the governments of Mauritius and the UK issued a surprise joint statement that the two countries had reached a ‘historical political agreement’ on the exercise of sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago. Running in counterpoint to the international plane, a once inactive colonial judiciary established as an administrative pretence has recently begun to hear cases, and in doing so set the administration of justice in conflict with the US military.
Continue reading >>The Advisory Opinion and a Negotiated Settlement?
The accepted framework for settling the Palestine question through bilateral negotiations, in legal terms, does not survive the Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024. The degree to which the Advisory Opinion catalyses a new political framework remains to be seen. But the Advisory Opinion gives the Palestinians newfound agency in shaping one.
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The principle of uti possidetis juris and the borders of Israel
The principle uti possidetis juris, raised in the Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Sebutinde and according to which a new State established in formerly colonial territory inherits the former (colonial) borders is untenable in the situation of Israel. The reason is that at the time of independence Israel’s leaders accepted the principle of partition. No claim was made then or subsequently that the State of Israel inherited the borders of Mandatory Palestine and legislative acts reveal that Israel even regarded territories not within the UN Partition Plan borders as occupied territory.
Continue reading >>The 2024 ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Occupied Palestinian Territory – An Introduction
The Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the "Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem" was a groundbreaking moment in international law. It has consequences not only for Israel, but also for third States, as well as international and regional organizations, in terms of non-recognition and non-cooperation. In this blog symposium, Palestinian, Israeli, and other scholars take stock of the Advisory Opinion and its regional and global impact.
Continue reading >>Dismissing the Genuine Link by Disregarding Constitutional Principles
The struggle over the Maltese investment citizenship scheme is probably one of the fiercest debates of EU constitutional law. The conflict revolves around the question of whether EU law contains requirements for the acquisition of Union citizenship and whether these requirements consist in a “genuine link” between the respective state and individual. The recent Opinion by AG Collins provides us with an extremely narrow and astonishingly one-sided view. In particular, he seeks to make us believe that there are no sound ways to anchor a genuine link requirement in EU law. Martijn van den Brink finds it “hard to disagree with the Advocate General”. Respectfully, I disagree.
Continue reading >>Fanfictioning Critical Theory
To redeem its commitment to an ‘emancipatory critique’, LPE would do good by supporting itself with a theory of science, or at least an epistemic program. While the critical tradition has raised powerful normative desires, it first and foremost stands for an alternative model of scientific reasoning. LPE, as will be shown, updates much of critical theory’s historical normative claims. Yet, at least from my readings, it appears to be missing out on a theory of science.
Continue reading >>Every Fake You Make
In Asia, the war on fake news is reaching the next level. Several countries tightened regulatory demands over the past few years and introduced criminal liability for users and platforms publishing false content online. The laws effectively contribute to making the truth: Anything that is not aligned with the legal standards of what is considered true may be found unlawful. This blog post scrutinizes new legislation in South Korea and Singapore. Both jurisdictions are criminalizing deepfakes per se during election periods. The post situates these laws in the broader context of legal efforts to tighten controls of digital communication in Asia and beyond.
Continue reading >>Concise, Clear, and Convincing
While the rhetorical battle over citizenship by investment has been won by the EU institutions, its legal success is still up for debate. Last week Advocate General Collins delivered his much-anticipated Opinion in Commission v Malta, proposing that the Court dismisses the Commission’s challenge in a concise, clear, and, as I will explain, convincing legal opinion.
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Normalization of the Housing Market
Law and Political Economy sharpens our understanding of how law came into being and how economic thought has shaped legal reality. Applied to housing, it uncovers the path dependencies of marketization and allows to question their background assumptions.
Continue reading >>The Bombay High Court Dismisses the Ministry of Truth
In 2023, the Indian central government established a Fact Check Unit to monitor online content related to ‘any business of the Central Government’ and order the takedown of any information that it considered ‘fake or false or misleading.’ The FCU itself was envisaged as a public body and a part of the central government. As it seems, the Indian central government wanted to depart from existing liability rules protecting platforms in all cases of online criticism of the Indian State. As the FCU would be the last arbiter of what could be said online in India about the central government, the amendment instituted what could be called a ‘Ministry of Truth’. This was struck down by the Bombay High Court.
Continue reading >>Different Jurisdiction, Same Problems?
The relationship of Economics and Law is long, contested, and entangled. Law and Political Economy, a group of legal scholars that are mostly working at universities in the United States, offers yet another perspective on this relationship. LPE may be described as an attempt to analyse, criticise and shape Law and legal scholarship to contribute to a more democratic and more egalitarian society. How this concept translates to the german and european legal debate is examined in this blog post. What can LPE bring to the table?
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How Germany’s Trajectory Differs from LPE’s Diagnosis for the US, and Where Germany’s Problems Lie
LPE’s diagnosis for the US situation does not map neatly on Germany’s political, constitutional and economic model and its trajectory. This does not mean, however, that the German model faces no problems; but these problems take a different shape and require distinct answers.
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The French Premiership Saga
The appointment of Michel Barnier as French Prime Minister and the designation of a cabinet even further to the right has led to thousands of protesters rallying across France. Taking a step back from the latest developments, this post looks back to some of the constitutional tensions the events of this summer have exposed. It argues that Emmanuel Macron’s actions following the snap election have relied on a distorted reading of the French constitution. In addition to raising serious legal questions, these actions have also set worrying precedents that arguably fit in a pattern of “executive aggrandizement”.
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Leaping the Atlantic?
Eva Herzog opens the blog symposium by introducing the US-American LPE movement’s main thesis. She calls for thorough contextualization in German and European economic, social and cultural history.
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Constitutionalizing the Political Economy?
Is constitutionalization a process that Law and Political Economy should strive for? So far, this debate has mainly been conducted in the US context. There, promoting a version of popular constitutionalism based on an egalitarian economic vision is clearly an “uphill battle.” But what about Europe and Germany? Is constitutionalism here a way of transforming LPE’s critical perspective into a positive agenda?
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Thinking Outside the (Ballot) Box
The Election Commission of Sri Lanka is riding a wave of praise after completing a peaceful presidential election on 21st September 2024. Less than a month before, however, the commission was found responsible for a breach of fundamental rights for its failure to conduct local government elections scheduled for 2023. This blogpost argues that the landmark decision sends a strong signal to all guarantor institutions in Sri Lanka to maintain their independence and to use their powers to discharge their functions.
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Lore Maria Peschel-Gutzeit
Lore Maria Peschel-Gutzeit was a judge, lawyer and Senator of Justice in Hamburg and Berlin. She fought for the introduction of part-time work and family leave for female civil servants, which was introduced in 1968 and has since become known as "Lex Peschel".
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Whose Consent?
On 4 October 2024 the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice upheld the General Court’s decision to annul two economic agreements concluded between the European Union and the Kingdom of Morocco. This judgment is a landmark for the CJEU in its application of international law. The Grand Chamber is navigating a difficult path; it seeks to ensure EU agreements comply with international law and respect the rights of the people of Western Sahara while seeking to maintain economic relations between the EU and Morocco.
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„Im Grunde war das eine für österreichische Verhältnisse ganz normale Wahl“
Fünf Fragen an Laurenz Ennser-Jedenastik.
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“This was a completely normal election by Austrian standards”
Five Questions to Laurenz Ennser-Jedenastik.
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Mutterschutz nach Fehlgeburt
Das BVerfG hat mit Beschluss vom 21. August 2024 die Verfassungsbeschwerde mehrerer Frauen, die eine Fehlgeburt nach der 12., aber vor der 24. Schwangerschaftswoche erlitten haben, nicht zur Entscheidung angenommen. Damit ließ das BVerfG die zentrale materiell-rechtliche Frage offen, ob das MuSchG Frauen nach einer Fehlgeburt von Verfassungs wegen schützen muss. Der folgende Beitrag geht dieser Frage nach und kommt zu dem Ergebnis, dass die aktuelle Schutzfristregelung aus § 3 Abs. 2 bis 4 MuSchG gegen Art. 3 Abs. 1 GG i.V.m. Art. 6 Abs. 4 GG verstößt. Zwar ist eine verfassungskonforme Auslegung möglich. Gleichwohl sollte der Gesetzgeber den Mutterschutz nach Fehlgeburt ausdrücklich regeln, um Betroffene effektiv zu schützen.
Continue reading >>Democracy’s Guardians
In its Resolution 1/24, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights recognizes electoral observers as human rights defenders. By equating observers with human rights defenders, the Resolution obliges States to guarantee their work, including non-interference, accreditation, and protection against risks, both in physical and digital realms. Setting out clear state obligations, the Resolution marks a significant step forward for democracy and human rights.
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Sex Work Can’t Buy Human Rights
In a recent decision on the merits in M.A. and Others v. France, the ECtHR held that French legislation criminalizing the purchase of sexual acts did not violate the rights of 261 sex workers. The decision retreats into the Court’s traditional interpretative toolbox of European consensus and (procedural) margin of appreciation. I argue that the ECtHR decision does not only demonstrate blindness towards the rising sensitivity towards intersectional grounds of discrimination in human rights law but also contradicts recent proposals on “a human rights-based approach to sex work” promoted by several UN organs and the Council of Europe’s Commissioner for Human Rights.
Continue reading >>Sale of Nationality as a Violation of Human Dignity
On 21 March 2023, the European Commission brought action against Republic of Malta for establishing and maintaining a policy and a practice of naturalisation despite “the absence of a genuine link of the applicants with the country, in exchange for pre-determined payments or investments”. In this blog, I argue that the Court is fully competent because Malta violated article 1 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. Specifically, I argue that selling nationality violates human dignity because nationality confers legal subjecthood, which is a central condition for guaranteeing the human dignity of European citizens.
Continue reading >>“Not only legally dubious but also ineffective”
Five Questions to Lilian Tsourdi
Continue reading >>„Nicht nur rechtlich zweifelhaft, sondern auch ineffektiv“
Fünf Fragen an Lilian Tsourdi
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Can the Knesset dissolve itself during recess?
On July 28, 2024, the 25th Knesset entered the longest recess in its history amidst an ongoing military conflict and complex political challenges. This unprecedented situation brought to the forefront the urgent and hypothetical question of whether opposition factions in the Knesset could initiate the dissolution of the Knesset, topple the government, and return the mandate to the people. While the High Court of Justice ruling in Frij restricts convening the Knesset during recess to urgent government matters, private bills aimed at dissolving the Knesset should be an exception under certain constitutional conditions.
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Iraq’s Lost Century
Shia religious authorities, in collaboration with their political allies in the Iraqi parliament, seek to redefine Iraq’s personal status law according to religious rules. On July 29, the largest bloc in Iraq’s parliament, introduced a controversial bill to amend the Personal Status Law of 1959. This proposed amendment would mandate that Iraqis, upon marriage, choose either Shia or Sunni jurisprudence to govern all personal status-related matters within their marriage. This change creates legal uncertainty by replacing predictable, codified law with premodern, uncodified Islamic jurisprudence. Moreover, it disproportionately affects women, especially by facilitating early marriages.
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Towards Shared European Finances
The EU is once again eyeing a workaround to address an emerging challenge. A few days ago, former ECB President Mario Draghi issued a landmark report to stem the EU’s decline, calling for a massive investment of 800 billion euro annually. Draghi’s proposal is in line with an emerging post-pandemic pattern in EU policymaking. This pattern is characterized by flexible, ad-hoc measures that are implemented outside of the bloc’s treaty framework. We celebrate the boldness and effective design of this important template, even as we recognize some legal creativity necessary to carry out bold moves.
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La Commission, c’est moi?
Contrary to cartoonish portrayals of Ursula von der Leyen as a latter-day Caesar, who may be illegitimately presidentialising the Commission, the current Commission President is merely furthering a more centralised vision of the institution that is implicit in the extent of her organisational powers under Article 17(6) TEU. While there are strong legal and constitutionally moral arguments for an alternative, more plural executive understanding of the Commission, the Treaties leave room for a contest between presidentialist and pluralist visions to take place across time in the political arena. Moreover, a more presidential conception of the Commission, while it may raise some questions regarding the mode of election of the Commission President and the role of the Commission, may also possess some positives.
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A Political Question Doctrine for the CFSP
On 10 September 2024, the CJEU issued its judgment in the joined cases of KS and KD, addressing the scope of its jurisdiction within the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Specifically, the Court asserted its jurisdiction in so far as the harm-causing conduct did not relate to “political or strategic” choices made in the context of the CFSP. I criticize the Court’s reliance on such an ill-defined concept to delineate the boundaries of its jurisdiction and argue that removing the limitations on the CJEU’s jurisdiction within the CFSP would require a reform of the Treaties.
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The 2024 Judicial Reform in Mexico
On September 11, 2024, the Senate of Mexico approved the controversial judicial reform. The ruling party, MORENA, achieved adopting the judicial reform thanks to a qualified majority in Congress and Senate. In this blogpost, we show that the way in which the judiciary reform was passed in the Senate cannot be considered as “expressing the will of the people”. We suggest that the very way in which the Senate vote came to pass is undermining one main justification of the judiciary reform, namely that it will lead to a judiciary “of the people”.
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A Voice for Nature
The rights of nature movement is gaining momentum all around the world. With the decision of the Landgericht Erfurt on 2 August 2024 the movement seems to also have set foot in European courts. Realizing those rights will ultimately depend on nature being represented before a court. Environmental ombud agencies akin to the Austrian Umweltanwaltschaften may serve as an example. Despite some shortcomings in its Austrian form, this institutionalised representation has the potential to give a firm voice to nature.
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The Inadvertent Protagonist
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), a UN body essentially responsible for resolving inter-state disputes, has been increasingly asked to consider matters with implications for individual criminal responsibility – a predominant concern of international criminal law. In some cases, the link is direct; for instance, in the last two years, the Genocide Convention has been invoked twice on behalf of Ukraine and Gaza. Although for the ICJ, its application is a question of State responsibility, it will give rise to questions of individual responsibility in other international and domestic fora.
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A War for the Tech Economy
Today, various commentators are asking about the purpose behind the pager attack and the subsequent communication device attack yesterday. The New York Times’s detailed report of the incidents announces in its title that Israel has built a “Modern-Day Trojan Horse”. The idea comes from Greek history, but perhaps a better comparison might be found in Greek myth. Prometheus stole fire from the gods. Today, Israel is attempting to develop secularized but God-like technological capabilities, at least in terms of their ability to generate surprise and change reality overnight. Yet, by discarding moral or political considerations in favor of pyrotechnics, Israel risks Prometheus’s ultimate fate: punishment.
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Rethinking EU Law Beyond the Liberal Feminist Paradigm
In K,L v Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid (‘K,L’), the CJEU decided that a belief in the value of gender equality associated with the lifestyle of the westernized woman be regarded as a reason for persecution. While the decision contributes to a gender-sensitive EU asylum law, I argue that the CJEU’s classification of the young women’s belief in the value of gender equality as ‘identificatory’ (as opposed to ‘religious’ or ‘political’) perpetuates a long-standing criticism of the liberal feminist paradigm.
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The Patriots for Europe
Never in the history of the EU has a political party at Union level so ostentatiously misnamed itself as the Patriots for Europe. Their name suggests a passionate love for homeland Europe but their Manifesto reveals an unmistakable commitment to dismantle European democracy and to reduce the EU to an undemocratic organisation of illiberal states. Following the recent European Parliament elections, the Patriots for Europe has emerged as nothing less than the third largest political party. I explore the core elements of their illiberal political agenda as outlined in their Manifesto and discuss how their proposed sovereign policies, if implemented, could reverse the progressive trajectory of European (legal) integration.
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Mexico’s Constitutional Democracy Under Threat
The final act of Mexican President López Obrador will be in collaboration with the president-elect Claudia Sheinbaum and the newly elected Congress. Among other things, in a move that goes beyond anything found in other prominent backsliding states such as Hungary or Poland, it introduces the popular election of all sitting judges across the Federal Judiciary, including Supreme Court Justices, every 9 and 12 years respectively. In an open letter, legal scholars, judges, policymakers and practitioners from various regions of the world have expressed deep concern over the potential consequences that the popular election of judges may have on judicial independence, the rule of law, and the safeguarding of rights and freedoms in Mexico.
Continue reading >>Flying Blind
A quarter of a billion euros. That was the final price tag the last time German politicians and constitutional law professors assured us that a controversial German idea was compatible with EU law. Yet the Autobahn car toll for foreigners only pushed through by the Bavarian regional conservatives (CSU) and passed by the Federal government grand coalition of Conservatives and Social Democrats was – quite predictably from the outset – contrary to European law and cost German taxpayers many millions of euros in contractual penalties following clarification by the ECJ in 2019. The way the current refugee debate in Germany is handled could end up costing Germany, i.e. all of us, much more – not so much in euros, but in trust in the reliability of Germany in general, as an EU Member State, and more generally trust in the reliability of the law.
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Soft Law’s Increasing Clout
The non-binding nature of soft law is rather self-evident, yet, its influence is growing, as reflected in the recent Jemerak case, decided on 5 September 2024. While the judges in Luxembourg explicitly stated that the Commission’s guidance document had no effect on their interpretation of Union law whatsoever, their decision de facto indirectly reviewed that document. I argue that the Jemerak case exemplifies the growing significance of soft law.
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“This case has the potential to set precedent for all of the internet.”
Five Questions to Kate Klonick.
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„Der Fall könnte einen Präzedenzfall für das gesamte Internet schaffen”
Fünf Fragen an Kate Klonick.
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Story of a Death Foretold
On 30 August 2024, the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court Justice Alexandre de Moraes suspended X (former Twitter) in Brazil. The decision follows a critical deterioration of the relationship between Elon Musk and Brazilian authorities, which became confrontational in April and hit an all-time high point of contention when the tech billionaire closed X's Brazilian office in mid-August. While Musk's attitude towards the Brazilian rule of law can be defined as delinquent, entitled, and anarchist, the Supreme Court’s decision to ban the platform in the country and establish hefty fines for any Brazilian attempting to use a VPN to access it is also controversial. Within the complexity of democratic erosion and digital policy in Brazil, the judicial expansion of power vis-à-vis the struggle against disinformation has been observed at least in the last five years, and the lack of a general legal framework regulating digital platforms supports these immediate but many times inefficient and legitimacy eroding measures.
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The Future of the European Green Deal
With the European Green Deal, the Commission has successfully presented a concept for improving climate, biodiversity, and environmental protection in line with Art. 11 TFEU. Most measures proposed by the Commission since 2019 have been adopted by the European Parliament (EP) and Council. However, the focus now shifts to implementation and application, where member states bear primary responsibility. "Law in the books" must become "law in action".
Continue reading >>France’s Shifting Constitutional Landscape
France is experiencing a major shift in its constitutional and political landscape. After weeks of uncertainty, President Emmanuel Macron has now appointed Michel Barnier as Prime Minister, sparking new protests against Macron’s actions since the election. From a constitutional perspective, it is becoming clear that the President cannot simultaneously serve as an impartial guarantor of institutions on one hand and the most powerful political actor on the other. While the country’s presidentialist tradition is not over, the era of fait majoritaire — a cornerstone of the stability of the French system — has ended.
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Democratizing Draghi
The Draghi Report is now published, outlining the “existential challenge” of European competitiveness going forward. In view of the geopolitical developments of the last several years, the scale of the challenge is difficult to deny, and the need for collective action at the EU level is commensurately intense. Despite these “compelling” reasons and the hoped-for “strength to reform”, however, the Report is hesitant on one crucial point: the EU is apparently not strong enough to undertake Treaty change to fulfil the Report’s ambitious objectives. We believe this approach is legally dubious, politically unwise and, eventually, helps constructing a diffused governance architecture that will fail to tackle the very real challenges the continent indeed faces.
Continue reading >>Bangladesh Through the Prism of Doctrine
Bangladesh is currently experiencing a political and constitutional vacuum following the abrupt resignation of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina after fifteen years in office. To restore order and steer the country towards new elections, the military has announced the establishment of an interim administration. However, debates have erupted questioning the legality of the interim government as it is not provided for in the constitution.
Continue reading >>Brave New World
The exhilaration and enthusiasm which followed the passing of the Digital Services Act (DSA) is long over. No matter one’s perspective on the DSA, it seems clear that the party is over and the work begins. One of the perhaps oddest provisions of the DSA is Article 21. It calls for the creation of private quasi-courts that are supposed to adjudicate content moderation disputes. User Rights, based in Berlin, is one of the first organisations to assume this role.
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Yayori Matsui
What to do when national and international legal systems fail thousands of survivors of sexual violence? The life and work of Yayori Matsui shows that the fight for justice does not require a legal background. As a journalist and feminist activist, she succeeded in convening a private people’s tribunal to prosecute crimes against women committed by the Japanese army during World War II.
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Beyond Doom and Gloom
What can we do now? Civil Constitutional Protection!
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Jenseits von Doom and Gloom
Was wir jetzt tun können? Zivilen Verfassungsschutz!
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Why Institutional Reputation Matters
Mexico is about to adopt a constitutional amendment to reform the judicial branch. While framed as an attempt to restore the legitimacy and independence of the judiciary, it is, in reality, aimed at capturing the judiciary. In this blogpost, I discuss a key strategy that enabled this judicial overhaul: the President’s persistent and systematic defamatory attacks on the judiciary. I argue that to facing the threat of institutional defamation, we must recognize the importance of the right to reputation.
Continue reading >>A Standoff Between the Monarchy and the People
On 7 August 2024, Thailand’s Constitutional Court ordered the dissolution of the Move Forward Party (MFP), the country’s most popular political party. The dissolution follows a decision in January, when the Constitutional Court ruled that the MFP’s campaign to amend section 112 of the Penal Code (the lèse-majesté law) constituted an attempt to overthrow the democratic regime with the king as head of state (DRKH), which is considered a fundamental principle of the Thai state. The decision is another chapter in a long-standing conflict over the scope of the criminal offense of lèse-majesté, the extent of freedom of expression, and ultimately, the character of the Thai state.
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Revenge in the Big Village
The EC’s 2024 Rule of Law report is yet another indicator of the deterioration of constitutional standards in Slovakia. Next to outlining selected key developments of Slovakia’s illiberalization in 2024, this post underscores how the small jurisdiction’s size in combination with its relatively isolated doctrinal legal academia could hamper the development of robust democratic constitutional discourse and thus legal academics’ contribution to democracy.
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Fast-track Democratic Backsliding in Slovakia
Over the past ten months, the Fico IV government in Slovakia has intensified its assault on democratic principles, revealing deep vulnerabilities in our legal system. This article examines the government’s four key strategies to consolidate power and weaken civil society: undermining judicial independence, expediting the legislative process, attacking civil society organizations, and exerting political control over independent institutions, particularly the public broadcaster RTVS.
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First Time as Tragedy, Second Time as Farce
In December 2023 the Hungarian Parliament speedily adopted the Act on the Protection of National Sovereignty and by February 2024 the government had already designated the Sovereignty Protection Office (SPO) for its enforcement. The history repeats itself, first time as tragedy, second time as farce. The current activities of the SPO exemplify the Hungarian government’s ongoing efforts to undermine free and independent society. It is crucial for the Union and European civil society to once again act swiftly to prevent the harassment of journalists and the potential disappearance of NGOs.
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From Zero to Hero
Poland, once a country with one of the highest numbers of Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPPs), might now be an example of how to deal with them. With third sector actors experienced in helping SLAPP victims and a willing Minister of Justice, Poland may have found the recipe for success. With Poland set to take over the EU Presidency, the effective implementation of the Anti-SLAPP Dircetive could transform the country into a model of progress after years of shamefully using abusive proceedings to suppress freedom of expression among government critics.
Continue reading >>Misjudging the Football Transfer System
In 1995, the Bosman ruling put an end to transfer fees for out-of-contract players. This year, the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) is dealing with the Diarra case, which concerns players still under contract. The Advocate General has already given the Opinion, which suggests that the upcoming CJEU's ruling will further weaken the transfer system. I argue that both rulings focus too much on the labour market and the freedom of movement of workers and neglect the fact that the football transfer system enhances competition in consumer markets at the benefit of smaller clubs and the football fans.
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When Words Really Matter
It has been over 900 days since Russia launched its so-called ‘three-day crusade’ to capture Kyiv. The way we talk about Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has far-reaching implications, not only for public perception but also for international policy and accountability. How we label this conflict—whether we call it the ‘war in Ukraine’ or ‘Russia’s war against Ukraine’—influences how we understand responsibility, justice, and the path to peace.
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Auditing Platforms under the Digital Services Act
Taming the power of online platforms has become one of the central areas of the European Union's policy in the digital age. The DSA increases the accountability of very large online platforms and very large search engines by introducing an auditing system. The audit process as defined by the DSA risks producing counterproductive consequences for the European policy objectives. From a constitutional perspective, the outsourcing of competence and decision-making from public to private actors articulates a system of compliance and enforcement based on multiple centres of power.
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The Hungarian Treeless Treetop Walkway
In the small village of Nyírmártonfalva in northeastern Hungary, there stands a wooden treetop walkway designed for walking among the tree canopies. Yet, there are no trees around. The European Public Prosecutor’s Office initiated proceedings to investigate this allegedly fraudulent appropriation of the EU common budget. In early August 2024, the Hungarian Office of the Prosecutor General rejected EPPO's jurisdiction. Nonetheless, the EPPO has jurisdiction according to the result theory, accepted also in Hungary, due to the place where the result of an offence occurs.
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Prove Your Integrity or Resign
In May 2024, in the case of Bala, the ECtHR issued another decision concerning the vetting of the judiciary in Albania. This time, the Court decided that the state’s ban on a judicial advisor, who resigned instead of undergoing the integrity vetting process, from entering high public offices for fifteen years does not violate the ECHR. While the ECHR does not explicitly articulate the right to free choice of occupation or the right to equal access to public offices, this article demonstrates that even under these two rights, the limitation in question is likely proportionate. However, legislators would be wise to consider less intrusive options as well.
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Lights, Camera, Inclusion?
On July 8th, 2024, the Supreme Court of India ruled on a case challenging the movie "Aankh Micholi" for allegedly reinforcing harmful stereotypes about disabilities. The Court declared that “disabling humor” which demeans persons with disabilities would not be fully protected as freedom of speech. While the judgment provided an in-depth analysis of creative freedom and the rights of persons with disabilities, it stopped short of issuing binding directives, thus lacking the teeth necessary to effect meaningful change in how disabilities are portrayed in media.
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Jurisprudence of Convenience
Last month, in Nipun Malhotra v. Sony Pictures Film India Private Ltd, the Indian Supreme Court delivered an opinion on the limits of protected speech under Article 19(1) of the Indian Constitution. While the opinion touched upon several important aspects of the free speech right, it is replete with behavioral guidance, and its language makes it hard to discern the binding legal principles. I argue that courts should approach cases involving hard questions of constitutional law with extreme caution in terms of their potential implication on the growth (or absence) of a consistent doctrine.
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Strengthening the EU Legal Edifice for Data Transfers
GDPR provides the rulebook for international transfers of personal data from the EU and serves as the vehicle through which EU data protection law interacts with the wider world. However, the EU seems ambivalent about deciding how far it can expect third countries to adopt data protection standards similar to its own. Moreover, DPAs often fail to scrutinize data transfers to third countries that may lack the rule of law. Finally, the EU lacks a comparative methodology for assessing data protection equivalence in third countries. It is essential for the EU to elevate the public discourse so that the global significance of data transfers is recognized.
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Mainstreaming Gender in EU Arms Export Controls
With the third review of the EU Common Position on Exports of Military Technology and Equipment (EU Common Position) well underway, there is a critical opportunity to align this document with international instruments that incorporate gender considerations in the arms trade. In light of this, the post examines the increasing integration of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) within arms trade legal frameworks and calls for the EU Common Position to explicitly reference gender beyond its already present human rights considerations.
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Hungary’s Sovereignty Protection Sham
Hungary’s persistent rule of law and corruption shortcomings have led the EU to freeze EUR 27.8 billion in funding under various conditionality regimes. Prime Minister Orbán, who relies on these funds to maintain his political machinery and reward loyalists, has wielded Hungary’s veto in the Council to unlock this funding. Moreover, Hungary adopted the Act LXXXVIII of 2023 on the protection of national sovereignty (Sovereignty Law), which sets up the Sovereignty Protection Office (SPO), a state entity created to defend Hungarian sovereignty. This post examines the Sovereignty Law and calls the EU to effectively halt the SPO’s activities and prevent this model from spreading elsewhere.
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Cooperation à la Carte?
In a recent contribution to this platform, Kai Ambos, Stefanie Bock, and a number of other distinguished German scholars have presented a compelling and highly topical plea for a consistent and effective application of the Rome Statute "without fear or favour" by Germany, one of its 124 States Parties. A similar risk of selectivity concerning the question of cooperation with the ICC can be observed in the present public and political discourse in Austria. I argue that an 'à la carte' approach to cooperation with the Court in matters of arrest and surrender, as partially indicated in the current debate, is untenable when adopting the ICC's recent jurisprudence on the horizontal inapplicability of head of State immunity, irrespective of the prevailing political circumstances.
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The Sleeping Beauty Has Awoken
In June 2024, the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission (IHFFC) announced that it had been mandated to investigate an incident in the Gaza-Israel conflict. Often dubbed “the Sleeping Beauty”, the IHFFC conducted its first investigation in 2017, twenty-six years after its establishment in 1991. Despite being sidelined for almost three decades, the IHFFC has the potential to reinvent itself as a crucial tool for monitoring compliance with international humanitarian law.
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The Price of Equality
Israel’s long-standing debate over ultra-Orthodox Yeshiva students conscription has reached a critical juncture in June 2024. The Israeli Supreme Court not only declared the absence of a legal basis for a broad and overall exemption for Yeshiva students but also introduced a remedy that I claim might be controversial: the suspension of state funding for Yeshivas whose students are subject to conscription but refuse to comply with it. This marks a significant shift in the Court’s approach to enforcing equality in military service and the rule of law.
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Counterclaims
Every case counts: Legal action against authoritarian populism
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Gegenrechtsschutz
Jeder Fall zählt: Rechtsschutz gegen die autoritär-populistische Strategie
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In the Shadows
Recent investigations by Netzpolitik and the German public service broadcaster Bayerischer Rundfunk into the company Datarade have shed light on a part of the digital economy that has so far operated mainly in the background: data trading. The key players in this sector are data brokers, whose business model is to trade in (non-)personal data. Data trading is a multi-billion-dollar component of the global digital economy and not a new phenomenon. This article outlines the legal implications of data trading in the context of the GDPR, the DSA and the AI Act.
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Kashmir’s Legal Exceptionalism Reinforced
A single judge bench of the Delhi High Court recently passed an order, rejecting a plea by the petitioner, Sublime Software, challenging a blocking decision by the Union Government under Section 69A of the Information Technology Act, 2000. n this blogpost, we critically analyze the Delhi High Court's ruling, arguing that it exemplifies a troubling trend of legal exceptionalism in Kashmir. We critique the order for its unqualified deference to the states’ national security claims, failing to examine the merits of those claims at all.
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On the Basis of ‘Backwardness’
Following the reinstatement of a quota system that reserved 56% of vacancies in public service posts for former freedom fighters by the High Court of Bangladesh, students in Bangladesh have demanded reformation of the quota system. On 21 July, the Supreme Court of Bangladesh overturned the decision by the High Court and ordered the government to limit the quota to 7%. It thereby eliminated the quota of 10% previously reserved for women. This reflects a dangerously narrow conception of equality which could negatively impact Bangladesh’s use of special measures such as quotas to redress women’s subordinated status.
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Jutta Limbach
Jutta Limbach is remembered as the first female president of the German Constitutional Court. In her career she served as Senator for Justice for the Government of West Berlin from 1989-1994 and prior to that as a Professor at the Free University of Berlin. But there is so much more to be said about a woman who for so many years was the face of Germany's highest court. This post has tried to focus on a period of her professional life that has not yet been very visible to the public.
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Wartime Constitutionalism and the Politics of Constitutional Review in Ukraine
On 18 July 2024, Ukraine’s Constitutional Court issued a decision concerning the rights of the accused in criminal proceedings under martial law. The extension of detention, the Court ruled, can only be issued based on a reasoned court decision—this applies even in times of war. In this blogpost, we examine how the war has influenced the ways in which various actors engage with constitutional complaints, before discussing the Constitutional Court's recent decision on Article 615.6 of the Criminal Procedure Code. We argue that this ruling exemplifies how the Constitutional Court can maintain the relevance and practical significance of its decision-making in wartime.
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Non-Binary Gender Markers in Italy?
In July, the Italian Constitutional Court recognised the existence of non-binary people for the first time in Italian history. Although the decision as such is a big step for queer rights in Italy, the Court stops halfway. In contrast to the German “Dritte Option” decision, the Court does not set clear instructions or deadlines for the Parliament. Italy’s current far-right political climate likely means non-binary gender markers will not be introduced by the Italian Parliament anytime soon.
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Family Values, Tradition, and Human Rights
Georgia is in the process of democratic backsliding. In short succession, a number of laws were passed that have raised alarm over the country’s commitment to democratic values, and its aptitude as future member of the European Union. The law under scrutiny in this contribution targets sexual minorities.
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Could Hungary be suspended from Schengen?
In early July, the Orbán government announced that it would extend a program that grants third country nationals simplified access and stay to work in Hungary to Russian and Belarussian nationals. This blog maps the ways in which Hungary’s policy might undermine the security of the Schengen area and surveys the tools Member States and EU institutions have at their disposal to counter it. Should the Hungarian government fail to dispel the concerns raised by its extension of the national card system, these mechanisms should be activated to safeguard the security of the Schengen area.
Continue reading >>Are Rights of Nature Working?
Legal initiatives recognizing the rights of nature have transformed from a trickle to a cascade. But are they really effective? A systematic study on the implementation of the Ecuadorian Los Cedros ruling, one of the most prominent decisions of this sort, shows that it has been notably effective in protecting the forest from mining threats. However, its impact on local community involvement has been limited, and the fate of Los Cedros and the case remain vulnerable.
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Why Georgia’s Law on Transparency Violates the Constitution
Since the spring of 2024, the political landscape of Georgia has been experiencing turbulent times. The so-called law “On Transparency of Foreign Influence (“Law on Transparency”) has, for the second time, caused huge public tension. The “Law on Transparency” represents more than a mere legal issue; it symbolizes the country’s choice between totalitarianism and democracy.
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Zwei- bis Drei-Klassen-Justiz in Österreich?
Seit der „Ibiza-Affäre“ vom Mai 2019 reißt die Kette an Skandalen in Österreich nicht ab. Zuletzt sorgte die Causa Pilnacek für Aufsehen. Der dazu nun veröffentlichte Kommissionsbericht attestiert Österreichs Justizsystem gravierende Mängel, insbesondere Korruption. In der europäischen Mehrebenenjustiz ist dies letztlich ein genuin europäisches Problem. Die zutage getretenen Schwächen sind damit nicht nur Schwächen der österreichischen Rechts- und Verfassungsordnung, sondern Herausforderungen für die europäische Rechtsstaatlichkeit insgesamt.
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Breaking with Conservatism?
The Japanese Supreme Court has been described as “the most conservative constitutional court in the world”. And, though lower courts can sometimes be more active, the Japanese judiciary as a whole tends also to be referred to as conservative. However, recent developments challenge this view. In particular, Japanese courts have begun to issue rulings in favour of the rights of sexual and gender minorities on issues like same-sex marriage and gender recognition. Do these decisions suggest that the conservatism of the Japanese judiciary has been overstated – or are they signs of change?
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A Setback for Homeless Rights in the United States
On June 28, 2024, the United States Supreme Court handed down its decision in City of Grants Pass v. Johnson (Grants Pass), its most significant case on homelessness in decades. The decision overturned the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeal’s 2018 decision in Martin v. Boise (Martin), which mandated that cities allow unhoused individuals to sleep in public spaces when shelter beds were not available. The decision fails to consider the root causes of homelessness in the United States and exacerbates the already fragmented regulatory landscape governing the vulnerable community of the unhoused.
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Making the Unacceptable Acceptable
Over the last days, England and Northern Ireland have witnessed a wave of racist violence and destruction. These riots, which have thrown the country into chaos, included attacks on mosques, burning of cars, and confrontations with the police. The racist nature of the events is made clear by the racist chants that are sung amid them, by posters shown by participants, and by the selective targeting of minorities. Given how shocking these scenes are, one naturally wonders what is causing them. Research suggests that elite rhetoric in recent months can have made these events more likely, by making far-right individuals feel that acting on their views is more acceptable.
Continue reading >>The Right to Defend Rights
On April 21, Narciso Beleño, a rural (campesino) leader and human rights defender who worked for the restitution of land and the sustainable exploitation of natural resources in Colombia, was murdered. Sadly, this is not an isolated case. 79% of the murders of human rights defenders occur in the Americas, with 47% in Colombia alone. Two recent judgments by the Constitutional Court of Colombia and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights have now addressed the phenomenon and gave legal life to the right to defend human rights.
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Taming the Shrew
On May 30th, Iraq’s Court of Cassation (CC) issued an unprecedented decision invalidating a previous ruling by the country’s highest court in the land, the Federal Supreme Court (FSC). The CC’s judicial coup and self-aggrandizement rests on a flawed doctrinal foundation and runs counter to the judicial hierarchy set out by Iraq’s constitution.
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On Recognition
The decades-long campaign for recognition of a Palestinian state on the 1967-occupied territory meets the international system, however flawed, where it is. Its selling point is simple: an independent Palestinian state is the most attainable way, if not the only way, to restore integrity and dignity to the Palestinian people while maintaining a minimum standard of order.
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Shades of Unconstitutionality
On July 12, the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye passed the 9th Package of Judicial Reforms. The package continues the tradition of amending various unrelated laws through a so-called omnibus law under the guise of reform. In addition, another feature has become remarkable: the alleged reforms deliberately overrule the decisions of the Turkish Constitutional Court (TCC), rendering its rulings null and void.
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Unprecedented Fraud and New Momentum
Venezuela is entering a new, dangerous phase of its conflict. Though not fully verified, the opposition appears to have won the July 28 election by a landslide. Nicolás Maduro's government has likely committed unprecedented fraud, tampering with votes and withholding tallies. Massive protests have erupted nationwide, with the government rapidly increasing repression and surveillance. This challenges prospects for a democratic transition, requiring a skilled national and international response.
Continue reading >>Liberty of the Press Forever?
Constitutions are linked both to the past and to the future. A central constitutional mechanism in the attempt to mark a dividing line between the past and the future, to represent a new era are unamendable provisions. Unamendable provisions, in this sense, play a “negative” role, serving as a lasting reminder of recent past devastations and as a constitutional/institutional attempt to transform and never return to past injustices. It is within this framework of ‘never again constitutionalism’ I wish to examine one of the most unique and interesting unamendable provisions in the world: the protection of ‘Liberty of the press’ in the Mexican Constitution of 1824.
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Allocating Duties and Distributing Responsibilities in a Post-Territorial Human Rights Paradigm
Migration is one of the frontier areas for rethinking the way in which human rights obligations are typically allocated. Not only is migration externalised and privatised, it is also a consequence of structural global inequalities. But complexity cannot be an excuse for lack of human rights accountability. Nor is there an unchecked mission creep: if human rights are indeed universal, there is no other option but to fill post-territorial gaps in human rights protection.
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Relationalizing the EU’s Fundamental Rights Responsibility
Human rights law traditionally governs a three-part relationship which connects the individual, the state, and its territory. The design of the EU’s Integrated Border Management (IBM) governance model eschews the applicability and enforceability of international and European human (fundamental) rights law by significantly reconfiguring the relationship between each of these three prongs. This contribution maps how these three traditional triggers for the applicability of human rights law are increasingly evaded in EU IBM policies, the responses to these evasion techniques and how a relational turn in the determination of human rights responsibility may be inevitable.
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Humanitarian Visas for International Protection Purposes
When feasible, third-country nationals request within EU Member States’ diplomatic or consular representations a visa on the basis of their need of international protection, in order to be granted legal access to the issuing State’s territory precisely to apply for international protection upon arrival. The focal point is whether States can be required to issue these visas in order to comply with their human rights obligations. This contribution demonstrates that the European Court of Human Rights holding that States do not hold any obligation in the context of humanitarian visa proceedings is unconvincing.
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Breaking Bad all’Italiana
The European Commission's 2024 Annual Rule of Law Report provides some analysis of Italy’s current political and judicial landscape under Meloni’s right wing rule. While the expectations towards the Report were low, the document must be read as a wakeup call, as Italy sets out to be the new Hungary.
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Never Again to Us and/or to Anyone
There are few questions that have proven themselves more fruitless to pose than “What Are the Lessons of the Holocaust?” For very many Jews, and certainly for the Israeli state, the lesson, to be realized in law and policy, is “Never Again–to Us”. The more liberal or universalist lessons are a call for civil courage, democratic self-defense and early awareness of the possibility of dictatorship and mass murder, “Never Again–to Anyone. The tension between these two perspectives is found everywhere the matter is considered, even in Israel and even symbolically.
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Bulgaria’s Constitutional Drama and the EU Commission’s Rose-Colored Glasses
On 26 July 2024, Bulgaria’s Constitutional Court declared a significant part of constitutional amendments enacted in December 2023 unconstitutional. These amendments were part of a rushed constitutional reform which was supposed to address persistent rule of law challenges in the country, such as the excessive powers of the Prosecutor’s Office and the politicization of the Supreme Judicial Council. The drama in Bulgaria raises concerns about why the EU Commission recognizes half-baked, ill-written constitutional reforms as progress without analysis of their substantive merit in context.
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Common but Differentiated Responsibility in Climate and Genocide Cases
The search for a more equitable and legally binding responsibility distribution mechanism in global refugee protection starts with the question what responsibility states bear for the protection of refugees and other forced migrants outside of their territory. Here I discuss two potential avenues within international law: the operationalised international law principles of cooperation and solidarity, based on their application in climate cases; and the Responsibility to Protect (RtoP) doctrine from international humanitarian law. The distribution mechanism they both apply might be useful to establish and define extraterritorial protection obligations of states towards refugees.
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Due Diligence in International Law
This contribution determines to what extent the international law obligations of due diligence, the no harm principle or the principle sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas can be relied upon today to advance extraterritorial obligations of states towards migrants. Crucially for this purpose, the due diligence obligation is not limited to individuals within the jurisdiction of a State. Rather, States must ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause serious harm to individuals in the territory of another State or to common interests of the international community.
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ByteDance v. Commission
The Digital Markets Act (DMA) is a revolutionary tool to regulate EU digital markets, it complements competition law by imposing ex ante obligations on the largest digital undertakings. The General Court judgement in the ByteDance case was the first test of the limits of this expediated enforcement and resulted in a remarkable win for the Commission. The Court dismissed ByteDance’s appeal against the European Commission’s decision to designate ByteDance with its social network TikTok as gatekeeper under the DMA.
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An Inconvenient Truth? Fascism and Ethno-Nationalism
India’s modern history has been profoundly shaped by a concern that nationalism can lead to mass violence and atrocity, if not genocide. This preoccupation was also shaped by the experience of World War II. Indian politicians and thinkers often referred to the experience of Nazism in making the case for India to intervene and prevent an impending genocide in what was then East Pakistan. While the intervention led to the creation of an independent state of Bangladesh, it was also a case in which invocation of the holocaust and “Never Again” was apt.
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‘One, No One, One Hundred Thousand’
States use mechanisms such as visas, maritime interdiction operations, pushback practices to unsafe countries to prevent migrants from reaching their shores, applying for asylum, or invoking fundamental rights guarantees. This raises the question of whether and to what extent States have extraterritorial obligations towards migrants who have not yet reached the territory of destination countries. By focusing on recent practices in the Mediterranean, this post addresses this overarching question.
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Beyond Borders
The question of extraterritoriality has found a very particular application in contexts of migration. This renders the questions of which state has to fulfill human rights obligations while a migrant is on the move and to what extent very pressing ones. This symposium examines what the existing criteria for attribution exactly mean for states’ extraterritorial obligations and responsibility in a migration context and whether arguments from other fields of law could either inspire or be implemented beyond their respective borders.
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Influences of the Holocaust on the Constitutional Law of Israel
The trauma of Auschwitz continues to reverberate in the collective consciousness of Israelis and manifests in Israeli laws across several primary domains. However, the primary impact of the Holocaust trauma on Israeli constitutional law has been the concerted efforts to prevent Israel from descending into a fascist, racist regime akin to Germany in the 1930s. The incorporation of the concept of Intolerant Democracy, which occupies a central role in Israeli constitutional law, was explicitly inspired by German history.
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Jewish Past, Mnemonic Constitutionalism and the Politics of Citizenship
For this symposium essay, I will focus on the Jewish past, with its tragedies extending beyond and preceding the Holocaust as a master narrative unfolded by mnemonic constitutionalism. Specifically, I will reflect on how citizenship laws – as the foundational cluster of constitutional law in liberal democracies, including the countries without a formal constitution – have built constitutional ontologies upon the Jewish past and the “never again” theme through three central examples involving “Jewish citizens”.
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Never Again – Ever Again
The “Never Again” is the desperate evocation of something impossible. Nothing prevents people from expanding the arsenal of their crimes with ever newer, ever more artificial, more scientific methods and instruments, and from using them. Just as grass and flowers mercifully spread over the ruins of the ovens, the fields fertilized with ashes, all attempts to bear witness to the crimes, to keep memory alive as a warning, dissolve into the history of the victors, which has dominated everything else in all times of human history.
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The “Never Again” Imperatives in Chinese Constitutions
This essay aims to provide a Chinese perspective on the question of traumas and the Never Again imperative. It will first place the question in the long history of constitution-making in China, taking the view that constitutional narratives are context-driven, shaped by particular historical processes, and addressing particular historical concerns of respective nation-states, each with its trauma and Never Again imperatives. This essay then brings the current 1982 constitution into focus, highlighting the trauma it is designed to address and assessing the sincerity and effectiveness of the commitment.
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A Network in Defense of the Rule of European Constitutional Law
In face of the erosion of the role of the judiciary, which is undermining the power and independence of many courts worldwide, European national courts stand in a stronger position. They benefit from the support of a robust network of actors committed to defending shared European values.
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Never Again in Russia
In the Soviet Union and later in Russia, reference to World War II played a central role in the decades after 1945. The “never again” narrative in Russia takes a very specific form: The focus is not on the Holocaust but on the Victory in the “Great Patriotic War” against fascism, the increase of power and status in the international system that this has brought, and the perpetuation of the present and timeless actuality of war in a mostly imperial and post-imperial context. The discourse on Victory against fascism undergoes a paradoxical development, from a way of commemorating collective trauma to the justification and glorification of new wars.
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Restitution for Pushback Victims
Despite the trauma caused by the brutality of pushbacks, victims often attempt to return to the expelling state’s territory, driven by desperation and the search for a better life. In doing so, they risk repeated violations of their rights. This vicious circle has to be broken. As reparation for the violation of their rights, restitution allowing for their return to the territory of the state responsible for the violation should be granted. This victim-centered approach allows their primary goal of re-entry into the state territory to be achieved through legal means.
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Freedom to Discuss Religion Between Facts and Opinions
In a recent televised discussion in Turkey, two Youtube-influencers have discussed Sharia law and Muhammad’s marriage with Aisha. This has caused strong reactions on social media. Moreover, after a public statement of the Justice Minister, a criminal investigation has been initiated. I argue that such statements should enjoy the full protection of freedom of expression. However, I criticise the distinction between “statements of fact and value judgements” as introduced by the ECtHR in case E.S. v Austria.
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A Democratic Mandate to Overhaul Mexico’s Judiciary?
It is time to take the present threat as what it is: the most serious threat to Mexico’s constitutional democracy at least since the slow start of the democratic transition in the late 1970’s. The constitutional amendment to the judiciary will translate into an incommensurable retrocession in terms of professionalization and judicial independence building. The day after the amendment is passed, Mexico will officially be less democratic and more authoritarian in that the scrutiny of the exercise of public power would have been put at great risk.
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Aristotle in the Commission
Today, the European Commission issued its fifth Annual Rule of Law Report (ARoLR). While this monitoring exercise has come a long way and has been significantly improved, the rule of law backsliding remains one of the most pressing issues of the EU. In the following I present seven recommendations how to improve the Commission’s monitoring exercise. At the core lies a differentiation between a democracy and a hybrid regime. Once a Member State qualifies as the latter, it must be treated accordingly.
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The Collective Memory of Trauma and Why it Still Matters
Holocaust historian Jan Tomasz Gross claimed in a 2015 article that the immigration crisis in Europe is inextricably linked to the way Europeans today contend with their group’s behavior during the Holocaust. What does the influx of mostly Muslim immigrants to Europe have to do with how Europeans treated their Jewish population eighty years ago? According to Gross, the answer lies in whether nations acknowledge their historical culpability, most notably in the case of Germany, or whether they actively try to deny any wrongdoing, such as in the cases of Poland and Hungary.
Continue reading >>Poverty as a Crime
In June 2024, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Opinion City of Grants Pass v. Johnson held that the Constitution does not guarantee individual protection against the criminalisation of homelessness. Similarly, in May 2024, the European Court of Human Rights found the case concerning the criminalisation of begging, Dian v. Denmark, inadmissible. Both of these judicial decisions are disputed since the criminalisation of poverty cannot solve the problem of homelessness or begging. Rather, it violates the fundamental dignity of the individual.
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Never Again. And Not Quite.
Those who build new public law act with the past hovering over their shoulders. Rejecting regimes of horror explains much of the content of new constitutions. Aversive constitutionalism – in which constitutionalists overtly steer away from a country’s appalling pasts – guides how they understand these new texts. On balance, even among those who disagree over precisely how the past is memorialized as “never again” in new constitutions, evidence shows that the horrors of the past influence public law in the present much more than do the dreams of some ideal future.
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A Union of Equality?
Last Thursday, Ursula von der Leyen, the new – and former – President of the EU Commission presented the ‘Political Guidelines for the next European Commission 2024-2029’, her ideas and priorities for the coming mandate. This blogpost will examine whether the Guidelines are living up to the scale of the gender-related concerns and challenges that are facing the Union, as Ursula von der Leyen promises. It identifies a shift in tone in the Commission’s pledges to promoting gender equality and outlines some proposals that the German Women Lawyers Association (djb) has advanced in order to help tackle these challenges.
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Administrative and Citizen Interpretations of Unwritten Constitutional Principles and Constitutional Silences
Looking at Canadian law, this blog posts argues that administrative agencies should be able to interpret and articulate unwritten constitutional principles when exercising their discretionary powers, and that these interpretations ought to be deferred to by courts. This would also encourage citizens to put forward their own interpretations of unwritten constitutional principles, fostering a participatory approach to constitutional interpretation.
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Never Again Say “Never Again”
“Never Again” is one of those slogans on which practically everyone can agree. How can one not? (Unless you belong to the flat-earth Holocaust-denial lunatic fringe). When we use “Never Again” it is, of course, a shorthand to the enormity of German National Socialism. The pledge “Never Again” is absolute in time: Never again. It is absolute in space too: “That” cannot and should not ever take place anywhere. It is universal: It bridges Left and Right, North and South, Rich and Poor. Standing at the barricades under the “Never Again” banner is both powerful and self-empowering. But herein lies its potential for abuse. What exactly is the “that” which must never happen again?
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“Never Again”
“Never again” is, first and foremost, a story. It’s a story about our collective fears, anxieties, and aspirations, those moments and events that we have promised ourselves that will never be repeated. The Jewish story is interwoven with the Holocaust—the killing of six million Jews in Europe and the urgency of the re-establishment of a Jewish state to solve the problem of Jewish homelessness. Yet the constitutional and international meaning of “never again” depends on one’s position and point of view, and it changes over time. The chain reaction that began with the horrors of WWII continues to drive constitutional and international agendas. It is clear that “history talks,” but in which direction?
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A Historic Verdict Against Chiquita Brands
A jury in a small town in Florida has set a milestone in the fight for international justice. After more than 25 years and 17 years of litigation, survivors of violence in Colombia have secured a victory in their pursuit of financial compensation. The verdict determined that Chiquita Brands International illegally financed the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, a designated terrorist paramilitary organization, and thus contributed to the murder of hundreds of civilians. The Chiquita case is the first to hold a U.S. company accountable for financing human rights violations in Colombia.
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Proximity, Amicable Settlements, and how the EU Guts GDPR Enforcement
The EU legislator is working on a new Regulation to modify the GDPR. Unfortunately, the reform features deeply troubling elements. It seeks to mainstream a controversial Irish approach to dealing with data protection complaints, namely “amicable settlements” between individuals and digital corporations. Further, and rather problematically, the reform foreshadows the end of the principle of proximity. Gutting – or at least eroding – the proximity principle should ring alarm bells for anyone concerned with effective judicial remedies in the EU.
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Germany’s Filibuster
Filibuster and debt brake contribute to legislative failure on both sides of the Atlantic. This failure is one of the causes of anti-democratic tendencies. The developments of recent years in the USA should serve as a warning to everyone in the democratic spectrum. Those who, in light of these developments, prioritize a symbolic balanced budget over addressing the real challenges of the 21st century are paving the way for German Trumpists. The European election was just a warning shot.
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Rechtsstaat versus Polizeistaat
Ein Review Essay
Maximilian Pichl formuliert eine gutgemeinte Kritik an der populistischen Umdeutung des Rechtsstaatsbegriffs, verstrickt sich aber in Widersprüche und endet in einer über den Rechtsstaat hinausgehenden politischen Utopie.
Continue reading >>Ensuring the Mission of Public Service Broadcasters
Public Service Broadcasters (PSBs) are publicly organised and funded broadcasters, organised by each of the EU’s Member State with a great degree of discretion and under a unique legal framework. Politicised interventions and the decline of PSBs’ independence threaten their ability to adequately perform their role and offer citizens a high-quality public service which meets the public’s democratic and cultural needs. The politicisation of PSBs by national authorities, coupled with the increasing concerns about media freedom, shows that some type of regulatory intervention is necessary.
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Biting More Than It Can Chew
Among (too) many other things, the recently adopted European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) introduced an assessment of the impact of media market concentration on media pluralism and editorial independence. It thereby aims to address the growing economic threats media pluralism and freedom have been facing all across Europe. However, when considering recent media merger cases in Poland as well as the substantive and institutional competition law framework, it is uncertain whether the Act will provide efficient solutions.
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Digital News Aggregators, Media Plurality and the Right to Information
The advent of the digital economy has brought many challenges to traditional business models, leading to new issues that go beyond pure market problems. This is also true for the news media industry since the emergence and rapid expansion of digital platforms like Google and Facebook. While the latter, in contrast to press publishers, do not produce any news content themselves, they have become digital news aggregators and first contact points for readers of online news. In this post, we reflect on the existing approaches towards addressing the bargaining imbalance between press publishers and digital news aggregators. We argue that the most adequate measure in addressing this imbalance would be a regulatory instrument such as a bargaining code.
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Taking Extra Care of the Media?
The adoption of the European Media Freedom Act broke new ground in the EU’s approach to media law. Amongst other goals, the EMFA seeks to address the risk of restricting media content by online platforms by envisaging the special, privileged, treatment of media service providers in the area of content moderation. This post discusses the extent of the privilege granted to media service providers and the relationship between the EMFA and the DSA.
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Why and How the Hungarian Presidency Must Be Stopped
It took less than a week for Viktor Orbán to make the worst predictions about the Hungarian Presidency of the Council become true. Yet with a twist. If many had warned about the danger that such a Presidency would have paralysed the internal operation of the EU, nobody expected this could also cause confusion and damage to the Union’s foreign policy. How the EU Member States will react to it may define the overall credibility of the Union on the international stage, particularly at a time when it increasingly faces significant challenges both from within and the outside.
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On Tables, Markets, and Free Speech
On the surface level, we see private actors exercising more and more power over speech; on a deeper level though, we might be returning to a far older discussion about the interplay of private and public power, and the fate of an individual who lives in the crash zone between them. Given that the result of this clash largely comes down to choosing a proper regulatory policy, this contribution argues that when regulating market-situated speech particular caution should be exercised.
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Regulating the Discursive Power of Big Tech Companies
Big Tech companies have power. One element of this power is discursive power, including in the public sphere, a cornerstone of democratic societies. In the current digitalized society, the public sphere has a significant online component. Discursive power may continue to grow, fuelled by AI developments, unless checked. To shape a possible legal response – we focus on European competition law – requires understanding the complexity of this power. Though competition law is focused on market power, we argue that it can and should have a role to play in curbing discursive power too, despite some inherent limitations.
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‘Democracies Die in Silence’
What is ‘media’ in a digitalized society where boundaries between news, commercial and social content are increasingly blurred? What do we really mean by ‘media pluralism’? These are all key questions liberal democracies in Europe and beyond need answers to, given both political challenges and the rise of market power and Big Tech companies whose actions affect media markets. While the law will not solve all of the problems associated with these developments, it can help in imposing limits on the way in which political and market power is used. This necessitates a sustained and informed debate as to what the existing legal framework offers and what additional legal responses are necessary.
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“Displacement due to environmental factors is one of the great tragedies of our time”
In a recent judgment, the Colombian Constitutional Court has ruled that displacement due to environmental factors can be legally considered as forced displacement triggering specific obligations of the State. The judgment (T-123 of 2024) highlights the deficit of constitutional protection for victims of environmental displacement, urging the state to develop specific strategies to address this issue. In this interview, Natalia Ángel-Cabo, a Judge at the Colombian Constitutional Court, explains the implications of the ruling and the concept of displacement due to environmental factors.
Continue reading >>The “Hong Kong 47” Verdict
Recently, the first court verdicts in the trial surrounding the “Hong Kong 47” were handed down. The trial is one of several political trials that are underway in Hong Kong (HK), a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). These trials are political partly because the accused are political figures involved in the 2019 civil unrest, partly because the accused are being tried under the National Security Law (NSL) introduced into HK by the PRC Central Authorities, and partly because they have been didactic spectacles revealing the actions and consequences sought by the accused. This blog post explains the background of the “Hong Kong 47” case and shows why it raises questions that are of interest outside of Hong Kong as well.
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Hate Speech on and off the Field
During the EURO 2024 in Germany, the UEFA has imposed a series of sanctions on fans and two players for inappropriate comments and gestures. Albania's player Mirlind Daku was suspended by UEFA's Control, Ethics and Disciplinary Body (CEDB) for two UEFA representative team competition matches after chanting nationalist slogans. Turkey's Merih Demiral was suspended for two matches for celebrating his second goal against Austria with a "wolf salute". These sanctions can be considered justified under the standards of the European Convention on Human Rights ("ECHR"). However, in order to have an effective preventive effect, they should be accompanied by criminal investigations under national law.
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Prison for Fake News
In Cyprus, a new legislative proposal introduces a prison sentence of up to one year and/or a fine of up to EUR 3,000. I argue that criminally punishing fake news is absolutely horrifying for free speech, for media pluralism, and for democracy. Criminalizing fake news has a “chilling effect” and it causes a self-censorship by media, civil society organizations, and average citizens. Moreover, the concept of fake news is highly ambiguous and its criminalization is counterproductive as it is not reducing the problematic content but “often draws more attention to it.”
Continue reading >>Online Speech at the US Supreme Court in Moody v. Netchoice
The First Amendment of the US Constitution raises some of the most difficult legal hurdles for regulating the global digital public sphere today. In Moody v. Netchoice, the US Supreme Court heard appeals from two judgments, an appeal from a decision of the Fifth Circuit declaring that Texas’ social media law H.B. 20 did not violate the First Amendment, and an appeal from a decision of the Eleventh Circuit finding Florida’s social media law S.B. 7072, instead, unconstitutional. These laws are similar in that they both attempt to impose must-carry and non-discrimination obligations on social media platforms, which in practice amounts to requiring them not to discriminate against conservative users’ posts. The compatibility of these two laws with the First Amendment cuts across a plethora of crucial issues on the future of social media regulation which the court could, but didn’t fully, address.
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Locating Unwritten Constitutional Norms in Global Constitutionalism
If there is a global constitutional order, it is “unwritten”. We cannot point to a written constitution for global law. Rather, theories of global constitutionalism and processes of global constitutionalisation are derived from an amalgamation of sources across international law and domestic constitutional orders. This blog post reflects on these tensions within the debate on global constitutionalisation, and focuses specifically on democracy as an unwritten constitutional norm in global constitutionalism.
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The Rule of Law and the United Nations Summit of the Future
Is the rule of law an unwritten principle for the UN system? Today, rule of law language has been gradually replaced by a new paradigm of ‘inclusivity’. The rule of law debate within the UN was centered on a thick understanding of the rule of law, highlighting substantive values rather than procedural guarantees. Absent a consented definition of the term, the rule of law was never considered to be an unwritten principle for the UN system.
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Giving Covenants Swords
The classical Hobbesian critique of international law famously asserts that “covenants, without the sword, are but words.” Accordingly, given Israel’s persistent non-compliance with the ICJ’s provisional measures in South Africa v. Israel, on 29 May 2024, South Africa requested “the Security Council to give effect to the Court’s judgments” under Article 41 of the ICJ Statute. This post shows why the discussions on whether the Council lacks the statutory authority to supervise and enforce the Court’s provisional measures under the ICJ Statute overlook the broader point. Namely, the Order on provisional measures is the perfect legal evidence for the Council to trigger its powers under Chapter VII and thus end the humanitarian calamity in Gaza.
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How Viktor Orbán Challenges the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy
Since the start of the Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union (EU), the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán pursued an active foreign policy. He went to Kyiv for a meeting with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, made a surprise visit to Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow, attended an informal summit of the Organisation of Turkic States hosted by Ilham Aliyev, President of Azerbaijan, and then flew to Beijing for a meeting with Chinese President Xi Jinping. Orbán’s self-declared ‘peace diplomacy’ illustrates – once more – the challenges surrounding the EU’s external representation. His visits are nothing else than an expression of Hungarian national foreign policy. Also in that capacity, however, his actions are problematic in view of Hungary’s obligations under the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy.
Continue reading >>Unwritten Constitutional Law as a Brazilian Constitutional Category?
Brazilian constitutional law is profoundly marked by the ideal of codification. In this context, the ‘unwrittenness’ of certain constitutional problems is usually not treated as such. This is especially intensified through the size and textual openness of the Brazilian Constitution. Yet unwritten constitutional normativity plays (and can play) arguably a decisive role in Brazilian constitutionalism. Could one then articulate unwritten constitutional law as a Brazilian constitutional category?
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The French Fifth Republic Enters Uncharted Waters
After yesterday's elections, the French Fifth Republic steps into uncharted waters. In the short term, France’s role at the heart of EU integration and as a key supporter of Ukraine remains steadfast. This stability is impressive, given most predictions. However, this new phase of French politics will be fragmented and fluid, demanding a recalibration to find a stable equilibrium while countering the far right. French moderate parties face a tough road ahead. Their success or failure will not only shape France’s future but also reverberate beyond its borders.
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The Stakes of the Unwritten Constitutional Norms and Principles Debate in the UK
Unwritten principles serve crucial purposes in the UK’s constitution. For example, they provide guardrails for judicial interpretation of legislation, and they form or give rise to substantive rules about the limits of legislative, judicial and executive power. With a growing body of research on unwritten constitutionalism, it is worth considering why these issues matter, and what is at stake in the debate. This post considers two issues which it argues can only be properly understood once regard is paid to the unwritten principles and norms in the UK’s constitution: the limits of Westminster’s legislative power, and the nature of the UK’s territorial constitution.
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Why the International Criminal Court’s Jurisdiction Doctrinally Attaches to Israeli and Russian Nationals
As the storm of ICC Chief Prosecutor Karim Khan’s request for arrest warrants loomed and landed on Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu and his Defence Minister Yoav Gallant, ardent supporters of Israel within the U.S. and U.K. governments and beyond appear to have seized upon a jurisdictional objection. U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken is reported as saying that the “ICC has no jurisdiction over this matter.” The U.K. Foreign Secretary David Cameron is reported to have said the same thing. There is a basic flaw, though, in the treaty-based objection to the ICC jurisdiction as has been made. It ignores the nature of the mandate of international criminal tribunals as mechanisms for the effective preservation of the basic fabric of the international order.
Continue reading >>The Salience of “Writtenness” and “Unwrittenness” as Constitutional Categories in Canada
Canada's Constitution sits somewhere between the paradigms of a fully codified written and partially codified unwritten constitutional order. This blog post explains why the differentiation between the written and unwritten matters for our understanding of Canada's constitutional system with a view to terminological, institutional, proceduaral, and policial questions.
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The Stakes of the Unwritten Constitutional Norms and Principles Debate in Germany
Focussing on “writtenness” can sharpen our sensibility of how liberally the German legal system allows the Federal Constitutional Court, as well as other courts, to acknowledge legal norms or principles whose textual basis in the Grundgesetz is far from obvious – which in other jurisdictions might be put into the area of norm-free, principle-oriented argumentation, i.e. whose constitutional quality is being problematized.
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Annie Ruth Jiagge
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which aims to eradicate all forms of discrimination based on sex and gender, is an indispensable treaty for women and girls worldwide. Given its profound impact, today’s sphere of international human rights law would look vastly different. But few people know that the CEDAW treaty was preceded by a 1967 draft by Annie Ruth Jiagge.
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The Limits of Contemporary French Constitutionalism
French President Emmanuel Macron’s dissolution of France’s National Assembly (its lower house of parliament) on June 9th took many by surprise. The results of the snap election’s first round suggest that Macron’s risky gamble—an attempt at turning the tide after his party suffered a major blow in the European Parliament elections—backfired majestically. However, more than a political setback for Macron, and outside of the many (highly warranted) concerns as to what harmful policies a new far-right-dominated parliament could pass, the move also raises many interesting constitutional law questions. Whatever the outcome of the second round on Sunday, July 7, France will face unprecedented circumstances that are likely to put the country’s 1958 constitution to the test.
Continue reading >>A Legal Trap for Freedom of Expression
More than seven years ago, 406 academics and researchers have been permanently dismissed from their positions at Turkish universities for signing a peace petition condemning the military operations by Turkish security forces in areas heavily populated by the Kurdish minority. The case raises critical questions about the limitations of international human rights bodies in safeguarding freedom of expression. In this blog, I demonstrate how the pragmatic considerations of the Council of Europe (CoE) contributed to the creation of a judicial trap disguised as a legal remedy.
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Beyond Protection
Whether and how gender-related violence can constitute a ground to claim and receive asylum has long been a subject of debate in refugee law. While feminist legal scholars have long sought to alleviate the gender-blindness of the original text of the Refugee Convention, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) only started taking some steps in this direction earlier this year. The CJEU determined in K, L, that women or specific groups of women who share a belief in an additional common characteristic — such as a belief in gender equality — may be regarded as members of a ‘particular social group’ (PSG), making them eligible for refugee status.
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The Supreme Court v. the Administrative State II
The outlook is not rosy for Democrats, neither politically nor in court. Democrats’ hopes that President Biden – who, according to some polls, is trailing Trump in all seven swing states – could turn the odds in his favor in an early debate have been dashed by his disastrous performance. To add insult to injury, in three 6-to-3 rulings along ideological lines, the Supreme Court further reigned in on administrative agencies, putting Biden’s regulatory agenda at risk. The most far-reaching of these decisions is, undoubtedly, Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo. This case marked a milestone for the conservative legal movement’s fight against the administrative state.
Continue reading >>Rethinking the History & Tradition Approach
In a landmark 8-1 decision, the United States Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Rahimi that the federal government has the authority to disarm individuals deemed by courts to be credible threats to their partners or children, consistent with the Second Amendment. This ruling marks a significant shift from the Court's previous stance in New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen (2022), which had established a stringent history and tradition test for evaluating gun regulations that undermined key tenets of the rule of law – clarity, consistency, and predictability.
Continue reading >>Soccer Meets Geopolitics
Two competitions are currently predominating Europe’s agenda – the UEFA Euro 2024 in Germany and the brute reality of geopolitics. While the former will decide over Europe’s next soccer champion, outcomes of the latter will arguably shape whether Europe will champion the new geopolitics of the 21st century. To win this competition, we argue that the European Union (EU) does not need a unified military force, but rather a new defense commissioner who would act as a dual security manager, bringing together the EU’s global entanglements with its economic clout to enhance the military power of its Member States.
Continue reading >>All Eyes on Sudan (too)
This article is an attempt to add layers to the discussions of ongoing mass atrocities committed in several parts of the world by discussing an under-reported situation of large scale violence unfolding in Sudan since April 2023, in the hope that the ‘international community’ can address multiple catastrophic situations with similar urgency, mobilise for justice for all peoples, end the culture of impunity, and eventually shift the discourse towards the structural causes of such large-scale violence in different parts of the world.
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Putting the Record Straight About the Spitzenkandidaten
In the last few weeks, a great deal of nonsense has been said about the concept of the Spitzenkandidat. Some accuse the European Parliament of a power grab, subrogating the lawful role of the European Council in choosing the new Commission President. Others trivialise the role of the Parliament and doubt the democratic credentials of the process. Many believe that the candidate must always be drawn from the largest party come what may. All these assertions are wrong. The election of the Commission President is a joint endeavour between Parliament and Commission, democratically legitimate, and fully in conformity with EU law.
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France’s Legislative Elections and the Uncertain Path to 2027
As most expected, Marine Le Pen’s Rassemblement National (RN) was the clear winner of the first round of the snap legislative elections in France, unexpectedly called by President Macron three weeks ago. Le Pen’s party, allied with a rump Les Républicains, led by Eric Ciotti, obtained 33.1% of the votes. A coalition including moderate and radical left parties, the Nouveau Front Populaire (NFP), came second with 28.1%, while the centrist parties supporting Gabriel Attal’s government received 21.3%. The mainstream right Républicains who refused to ally with the RN stopped at 6.6%. The RN confirmed its strong showing at last month’s European elections and more than doubled its votes in comparison to the last legislative elections of April 2022. Yet, an RN-led government is not a foregone conclusion.
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Ukraine, the Netherlands and 26 Third States Without Russia Before the ECtHR
The hearing in the case of Ukraine, the Netherlands v Russia lasted four hours and twenty-five minutes. more than double than an “ordinary” Grand Chamber hearing. These four hours and twenty-five minutes are an important milestone in what is undoubtedly one of the most important set of cases in the history of European Convention on Human Rights. They cover more than ten years of Russian activities in Eastern Ukraine, including the open war of aggression since February 2022. The number of third parties involved in the proceedings likewise renders the case extraordinary.
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From Constitutional Crisis to Poisoned Chalice
The national elections to the UK Parliament in Westminster are scheduled for 4 July 2024, and are consequential for the constitution.
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Von verfasstem Recht und verstecktem Gift
Am 4. Juli 2024 stehen die Wahlen des britischen Parlaments in Westminster an. Sie werden sich auf die Verfassung auswirken.
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Growing the Living Tree
On 21 June 2024, the High Court of Namibia in Friedel Laurentius Dausab vs. The Minister of Justice unanimously held that laws criminalizing same-sex relationships are unconstitutional and invalid. The judgment significantly advances anti-discrimination law jurisprudence in Namibia, particularly in relation to the grounds of sexual orientation and the interpretation of constitutional equality provisions.
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A Global South Perspective on Loss and Damage Litigation
In June 2024, delegates undertook two-week-long negotiations at the UNFCCC Bonn Climate Change Conference. These meetings concerned the modalities of the newly instituted Loss and Damage (L&D) Fund and the provision of financial assistance to developing countries. In this piece, we reflect on the future interactions between the L&D Fund and litigations regarding L&D. We argue that these two phenomena must be seen as having a synergistic relation, effectively benefitting the Global South.
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The Lighthouse of EU Law Shines on the Polish Constitutional Tribunal
Last week, legal scholars from all over the world met in Freiburg at the ConTrans conference. On the one end of the spectrum, scholars like Woijcech Sadurski advocated for a revolutionary approach, simply dismantling the current Tribunal and re-building it from scratch. On the other end stands Adam Bodnar, who stressed the importance of legality in the transition process. In my view, EU law shines a possible way ahead – it can justify disregarding the Tribunal’s decisions and empower ordinary courts to assume the Tribunal’s jurisdiction. Eventually, this would lead to a decentralised constitutional review.
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In Favour of the Hungarian Council Presidency
On the 1 July 2024, Hungary will start its second EU Council Presidency. In light of Hungary’s continuous breaches of the rule of law, questions have been posed whether the Presidency could be postponed or cancelled (also here). However, given the mere informal powers of the Presidency, I argue that the real damage is rather limited, especially because the Hungarian Presidency takes place just after the European elections. Finally, the Hungarian Presidency may even improve the connection of its citizens with the EU and show the best version of itself to the other Member States.
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Secret Campaigns and Masked Messages
Every election season in India reignites a familiar concern: the pervasive influence of financial resources on the democratic process. While the Election Commission of India, in conjunction with the judiciary and various state apparatuses, consistently underscores the link between monetary power and electoral outcomes, a significant loophole persists. This blogpost examines that loophole: the unchecked power of surrogate advertising on social media platforms and uncovers the systemic failures that enable political parties to exploit these gaps, perpetuating financial inequalities in the democratic process.
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The Abrogation of Asylum
Migration and border control are amongst the most pressing topics throughout the regions in this global super-election year. How to tackle this issue seems to be the million-dollar question and the urgency of this topic seemingly has pushed President Joe Biden – who previously pledged to reverse restrictive migration policies – to drastic measures. After failed attempts to pass a bipartisan immigration deal earlier this year, Biden is now in a race with Republican candidate Donald Trump to show a “tough stand” on the matter while ignoring core refugee law principles and arguably with little lasting effects on numbers of arrivals at the southern border.
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Toward a More Rigorous Mechanism for Resolving Legislative Conflicts
In December 2023, China’s national legislature, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPCSC), adopted the Decision on Improving and Strengthening the System of Recording and Review, a major bill aimed at reforming “recording and review” (R&R)—China’s system of parallel processes for resolving legislative conflicts. Under R&R, an enacting body—that is, a governmental body authorized to issue documents of a legislative nature—must file its legislation with the designated reviewing body for subsequent review. Some would give more teeth to the rectification process so that enacting bodies do not abuse the latitude they enjoy. How the new measures would work in practice and whether they would achieve the intended goals, however, remain to be seen.
Continue reading >>Taiwan’s Constitutional Showdown
A stress test for Taiwan's democracy.
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Taiwans verfassungsrechtlicher Showdown
Eine harte Probe für Taiwans Demokratie.
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Rule of Law Chickens Coming Home to Roost
Ongoing assaults by Viktor Orbán’s Fidesz administration on the rule of law in Hungary have produced manifold reactions, generally of depressingly limited effectiveness. Last week, on 13 June 2024, in Case C-123/22 European Commission v Hungary, the Court ordered a record lump sum payment of €200,000,000 and a penalty payment of €1,000,000 per day of delay until an earlier 2020 Court ruling is complied with. Hungary thus received a stinging reminder that the Court of Justice is not toothless when it comes to the rule of law.
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Austria‘s Action for Annulment
On 17 June, Austrian Minister for Climate Action and Environment Leonore Gewessler voted in favor of the Nature Restoration Law in the EU Council of Ministers. Although a seemingly unspectacular thing for a minister to do, this set off a political scandal and constitutional dispute in Austria. This blogpost examines whether one of the most ambitious pieces of EU environmental legislation could be struck down by the Austrian federalist system and an angry coalition partner within it. It argues that, given that this is essentially an internal national dispute, an action for annulment before the CJEU does not appear to be the appropriate legal remedy and is unlikely to succeed.
Continue reading >>Downstream Emissions as Climate Impacts
In a 3-2 majority, the UK Supreme Court delivered a landmark ruling today, significantly impacting the consideration of climate impacts in the oil and gas licensing process. While the Government’s approach so far has been to only consider exploration and production emissions, the Court’s decision establishes that emissions resulting from burning the produced oil and gas (regardless of where it occurs) have to also be considered. The ruling is significant as it is the first highest court decision to adopt this interpretation on climate impacts of fossil fuel production. It will no doubt have a knock-on effect on at least three other cases pending before lower courts in the UK, and potentially affect cases both within and outside the European Union.
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The Emir Giveth, the Emir Taketh Away
Kuwait, a democratic outlier in a hopelessly authoritarian Gulf, is facing a constitutional crisis under its new Emir who is intolerant to his country’s never-ending political gridlocks. Over the next four years, expect a constitutional overhaul. Instead of emulating the Kais Saied model, which would scrap the entire democratic experiment, the new constitution should address the key flaws in a six-decade-old political system that has been plagued by persistent stalemates between the government and parliament.
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A Constitutional Reform in Italy to the Detriment of Systemic Balance
In Italy, an important reform of the Italian constitution is underway: the introduction of direct elections for the head of government. This is to take place together with the election of both chambers of parliament. In addition, the composition of the two chambers is to be significantly influenced by a new "majority bonus" to be anchored in the constitution. By strengthening the power of the prime minister at the expense of guarantor functions of the head of State, Italy would therefore gain nothing in terms of democratic stability but would lose a great deal in terms of checks and balances in the political system.
Continue reading >>Eine Verfassungsreform in Italien zulasten systemischen Gleichgewichts
Italien diskutiert gerade eine wichtige Reform seiner Verfassung: die Einführung der Direktwahl des Regierungsoberhaupts. Sie soll zusammen mit der Wahl beiden Parlamentskammern stattfinden. Zusätzlich soll die Zusammensetzung der beiden Kammern mit einem in der Verfassung neu zu verankernden „Mehrheitsbonus“ maßgeblich beeinflusst werden. Mit einer Stärkung der Macht des Ministerpräsidenten zulasten staatsoberhäuptlicher Garantiefunktionen würde Italien also nichts an demokratischer Stabilität gewinnen, dafür aber vieles an Ausgewogenheit und checks and balances im politischen System verlieren.
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Eine neue Verfassungsordnung in Südafrika
Die Ära der absoluten Mehrheiten im demokratischen Südafrika ist vorbei. Nachdem der African National Congress sechs aufeinanderfolgende Wahlen über einen Zeitraum von 30 Jahren mit absoluter Mehrheit gewonnen hatte, erhielt die Partei am 29. Mai 2024 zum ersten Mal weniger als 50% der Stimmen. Der ANC bleibt stärkste Partei. Am Abend des 14. Juni wählte die südafrikanische Nationalversammlung den ANC-Parteichef Cyril Ramaphosa in seine zweite Amtszeit als Präsident des Landes. Doch Politik und Verfassungsstaatlichkeit in Südafrika haben sich fundamental geändert.
Continue reading >>A New Constitutional Order in South Africa
The dominant party era in democratic South Africa is over. After winning absolute majorities in six consecutive national elections spanning thirty years, on 29 May 2024 the African National Congress (ANC) fell below 50% of the vote for the first time. The ANC remains the largest party. On the evening of 14 June, the National Assembly elected ANC leader Cyril Ramaphosa for a second term as the country’s president. But South Africa politics, and its constitutionalism, have changed fundamentally.
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Restitution durch Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit
Die Restitution nationalsozialistischer Raubkunst beschäftigt uns seit Jahrzehnten. Entgegen vieler Stimmen aus dem öffentlichen Recht liegen gegenwärtig im Feld der Restitution nationalsozialistischer Raubkunst die größten versöhnungspolitischen Chancen nicht darin, ein „Restitutionsgesetz“ anzustreben, sondern vielmehr darin, die bestehenden Möglichkeiten „privatautonomer“ Streitbeilegung durch Errichtung einer Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit auszuschöpfen.
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Louise Weiss
When you hear the name 'Louise Weiss', you may think of the European Parliament building in Strasbourg that bears her name, or of her election to the first European Parliament and her inaugural speech. What may not come to mind is the woman Louise Weiss herself and the outstanding achievements throughout her life. This brief profile is a reminder that she should be remembered for her tireless search for peace, her tireless fight for women's rights, her endless humanitarian work and for being truly 'European'.
Continue reading >>Why an EU Country under the Surveillance Procedure (Article 7.1 TEU) Should not Chair the Council Presidency
In accordance with the Council Decision on the exercise of the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, from July 1 of this year the office is to be held by Hungary. This occasion will mark the first time that the Presidency will have been held by a Member State that has been subject to the “surveillance” procedure in Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union, having been launched by the European Parliament in September 2018. It would now be both prudent and sensible for the Council to delay the Hungarian Presidency to such a time when the Article 7(1) TEU surveillance procedure will have been successfully concluded. Such a postponement should not be considered as a sanction against Hungary, but rather a simple precautionary measure to preserve the smooth functioning of the European Union.
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‘Relevant Rules’ as Normative Environment
On 21 May 2024, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) delivered its much anticipated Advisory Opinion on Climate Change. This post zeroes in on one particular interpretative issue, and its wider ramifications for the development of international law, namely the Tribunal’s approach to Article 31(3)(c) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) (which enshrines the principle of systemic integration) in connection with the interpretation of UNCLOS. Although ITLOS did not elaborate in detail on its approach, as can be seen from its entire analysis, the Tribunal has demonstrated a clear and principled choice with respect to the content and application of Article 31(3)(c) VCLT and its customary counterpart.
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Art, Science, Research and Teaching Are Free
Bettina Stark-Watzinger and her "Year of Science 2024 - Freedom"
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Kunst, Wissenschaft, Forschung und Lehre sind frei
Bettina Stark-Watzinger und ihr "Wissenschaftsjahr 2024 - Freiheit"
Continue reading >>Without Fear or Favour
Germany, like any other State Party to the Rome Statute, would be obliged under international law, and would be capable under German law, to arrest any person against whom the ICC has issued an arrest warrant, be it President Putin or, in future, perhaps one of the Hamas leaders, Defence Minister Gallant or Prime Minister Netanyahu. The opposing view not only misrepresents the current state of international law, but it also contradicts the Nuremberg legacy, which must be upheld particularly by Germany.
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The Proposed Psychological Tests for Judges in Italy
The recent proposal to introduce psycho-academic tests for access to the judiciary, which in Italy includes both the careers of judge and public prosecutor, has sparked heated clashes and debates between state powers and legal practitioners. But what are the reasons behind this proposal and why is it causing such a stir?
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The Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive beyond Europe
The CSDDD is a game changer that forces a large number of European States to level the legislative landscape with regard to corporate responsibility for human rights and environmental impacts, as well as in relation to liability and access to justice. And yet, its reach throughout global “chains of activities” will most likely bring important hurdles for implementation including in relation to the scope of human rights covered in practice; the need for effective capacity-building in transnational chains of activities; the need for a more proactive dialogue and cooperation between the EU and other States; and last but not least, in ensuring consistency between the national implementation of the CSDDD and international and regional human rights obligations.
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Reframing Harassment as Occupational Safety and Health Issue
In 2019, the International Labor Organization adopted the Convention No. 190 on Violence and Harassment at Work. The convention has been dubbed a milestone, since it implements a duty of each member state to address this topic through “an inclusive, integrated and gender-responsive approach”. This duty will apply to Germany from the 14th of June, when the convention enters into force. At the event of ratification, the German government expressed its opinion that “in order to meet the requirements of the Convention, no additions to national legislation are necessary.” We will demonstrate that this does not hold true.
Continue reading >>Voting for the Government-in-Exile
So far, democracy in Belarus has struggled to establish itself within the country. After the protest movement in 2020, Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya went into exile where she and her supporters have been trying to penetrate the firm autocratic regime of Alexander Lukashenka. On June 8, the results of the elections for the Coordination Council – an exiled substitute assembly for the in situ Belarusian Parliament were announced. Less than 7,000 people participated in the vote. Despite the considerable efforts to mobilise the voters for the Coordination Council, the exiled opposition has failed to secure any meaningful turnout and thus its much-needed further democratic legitimacy.
Continue reading >>The EPPO as a Domesticated Cat
The European Public Prosecutor’s Office (EPPO) has just celebrated the third anniversary of the start of its operations. “I am sure you will soon see [the EPPO] is anything but a ‘toothless tiger’”, said Laura Kövesi in an interview in 2021. Sadly, in Bulgaria, a country frequently shaken by scandals implicating abuses of EU funds and known for rampant corruption, the EPPO reminds of a domesticated rather than a fierce wild cat.
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Legitimizing Heresy through Law
In the heart of Europe, a troubling commemoration persists. On May 18, Croatia observed a remembrance day that honors the memory of those killed in Bleiburg in 1945 – a group that included members of the Ustasha movement, a Nazi collaborationist faction during WWII. Established by law, this memorial day controversially depicts Ustasha as fighters for Croatia’s freedom and independence. Such a narrative not only distorts historical facts but dishonors the memory of the victims of Ustasha atrocities. Additionally, it affirms values contrary to the country’s Constitution and fails to align with international standards on memorialization and the EU politics of memory.
Continue reading >>Between Continuity and a Perforated ‘Cordon Sanitaire’
Fears of a radical right-wing wave dominated the debates leading up to the European Parliament (EP) elections. As the final votes are tallied across the 27 EU Member States, it has become evident that the predictions of pre-election polls have partially come true: Far-right parties secured about a quarter of the popular vote. What are the implications? While the current results likely indicate by-and-large continuity in the European Parliament, including an ongoing shift to the right on contested issues such as migration or climate policy, they had heavily disruptive consequences on the national level, which in France has resulted in snap parliamentary elections. This will have pronounced impact on the balance of power in the (European) Council and on the EU as a whole.
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The Unintended Consequences of Mandatory Due Diligence
The EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) seeks improvements in companies’ societal impacts but carries risks of negative impacts, including on the developing countries where some supposed beneficiaries are located. Does the CSDDD recognise and mitigate such risks? The blog identifies provisions in the CSDDD that address the unintended consequences that mandatory human rights and environmental due diligence requirements might have in developing countries.
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Two Steps Forward?
On May 25 2024 the Advocate General Nicholas Emiliou delivered his opinion in the Case C-406/22 CV v Ministerstvo vnitra České republiky, Odbor azylové a migrační politiky on several issues regarding the application of the safe country of origin (SCO) concept. The case could have significant impact on SCO policies of several EU Member States and the rights of refugees as it addresses the possibility of designating countries as safe with territorial exceptions as well as a more active approach to judicial review of SCO designations. If adopted by the CJEU, the AG’s suggestions could serve to enhance refugee protection, though the adoption of the Pact on Migration and Asylum might possibly counteract this.
Continue reading >>More of the same or true evolution?
While rights holders are not expressly mentioned as a group of stakeholders in CSDDD, the adoption of this important legislation creates a significant opportunity to involve rights holders to define how the content of the stand-alone article on stakeholder engagement can be filled with legal meaning by soliciting them directly.
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Should a Convicted Felon be the Next President of the US?
On Thursday, May 30th, 2024, former President Trump was convicted in New York City by a jury of thirty-four criminal charges consisting of falsifying business records with the intend to deceive. Regardless of his tirade against the American legal system, he stands as a convicted felon unless he could prove otherwise on appeal. This is an unprecedented conviction. Mr. Trump is the first American president who has been criminally convicted. Lamentably, the republican establishment continues to stand by the former president and to question the legality of this trial thereby challenging the integrity of the rule of law.
Continue reading >>Nothing but your own Constitution?
The recent report on Germany by the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights following her visit in late 2023 records an alarming situation regarding social inequality in Germany. The document criticizes Germany for its approach to combat social inequality. Similarly harsh in tone reads the statement by the Federal Government on the Commissioner’s report, claiming the situation not to be as alarming as presented and the German law to have been misinterpreted. What’s it all about?
Continue reading >>Delegitimizing by Procrastinating
In countries where populist movements have garnered significant electoral support, their self-proclaimed role as the sole representatives of the true will of a unified people has led them to assert that their democratic legitimacy surpasses the technocratic authority of constitutional courts. The requirement of supermajorities in the election of Italy's constitutional judges has, in combination with a changed political landscape, led to political deadlocks, entailing the risk of jeopardizing the Court’s operability and partisanship-based appointments.
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From Paper to Practice
The CSDDD requires companies to carry out due diligence on actual and potential human rights and environmental adverse impacts. This means companies have to identify harmful impacts in their value chains and take appropriate measures to prevent, mitigate, or bring them to an end. In this two-part blog post, we will look at which environmental impacts are covered by the CSDDD and how they are addressed. In this second part, we will discuss how the CSDDD negotiations influenced the design of its environmental provisions and identify missed opportunities. We will conclude by analysing what factors are important to ensure that transposition and implementation remain true to the CSDDD’s objectives.
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Waiting for Kinsa
On 18 June 2024, the Court of Justice of the European Union will sit as a Grand Chamber in a hearing addressing the compatibility of the so-called Facilitators Package with the principle of proportionality set out in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (CFR). The Kinsa case (previously named Kinshasa) provides an opportunity for the CJEU to counteract the trend towards overcriminalisation of humanitarian action that has taken hold across the EU. This blog highlights the ways in which the Facilitator Package fails to take account of important fundamental rights and why the criminalization of solidarity that it has facilitated is not an inevitability but a political choice.
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A High-Stakes Game
So it has happened: Marine Le Pen’s Rassemblement National (RN) received more than twice the votes of Macron’s Renaissance list in the European elections (31.4% vs. 14.6%). Following the results, Macron announced to dissolve parliament and call an early election. Judging by the immediate reactions on social media, Macron’s announcement shocked several commentators and the public. Yet, from the perspective of the 2027 presidential elections, the reasoning may not be as reckless as it seems. Macron’s calculation is based on the consideration that three more years of the current situation would make a Le Pen presidency highly likely in 2027.
Continue reading >>New Wine in Old Bottles
The CSDDD requires companies to carry out due diligence on actual and potential human rights and environmental adverse impacts. This means companies have to identify harmful impacts in their value chains and take appropriate measures to prevent, mitigate, or bring them to an end. In this two-part blog post, we will look at which environmental impacts are covered by the CSDDD and how they are addressed. Our intention is to provide a starting point for the debate by summarising the outcome of the legislative process, explaining how we got there, and offering some thoughts on where we might go next.
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Hitting the Pause Button on the EU Project?
What is at stake in these elections.
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Towards Planetary Boundaries for Business?
While the material scope of the EU’s Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) fell behind civil society demands, it does mandate a degree of environmental due diligence that constitutes a tentative shift towards real corporate environmental accountability. Despite its conceptual restrictions, which are the result of a somewhat polarised legislative process, the CSDDD’s environmental annex provides a provision with potential for the protection of biological diversity: the reference to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
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More than a Sink
The difference between treating the oceans as a mere sink versus protecting them as a vital part of the environment has important implications under international law. These implications come to the fore when considering the relationship between the UNCLOS on the one hand and the UNFCCC and its Paris Agreement on the other. While the latter treaties in no way legitimize pollution of the marine environment, their focus on oceans as sinks could be misinterpreted to deprive UNCLOS and the customary rules it codifies of a meaningful role in addressing climate change.
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Why Climate Science Matters for International Law
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) issued an advisory opinion on May 21, 2024 in response to a request submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law (COSIS). While various aspects of the advisory opinion have already been discussed in this joint blog symposium, this post focuses on a feature of the opinion that has so far received little emphasis: the strong role of science. The scientific evidence presented by the tribunal provides a solid basis for its conclusions on State obligations to prevent, reduce, and control climate pollution.
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Militant Public Administration
An unprecedented scandal surrounding a Polish governmental fund established to aid crime victims highlights the role of civil servants in authoritarian state capture. The revelations surrounding the Justice Fund show broad levels of bureaucratic acquiescence with shocking abuses of power, and only belated effort to document and report these abuses. The Polish case shows it is time for a democratically militant public administration – the new vision of civil service better prepared to fend off authoritarian encroachment from elected politicians.
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Trans Rights and Gender Recognition before the CJEU
On May 7, 2024, the Advocate General of the CJEU issued his Opinion on the Mirin case concerning the right to Legal Gender Recognition (LGR) for transgender persons. Yet, the solution offered by the AG deviates from the Court’s previous case-law on LGR, by making it about free movement rather than protection against discrimination, or fundamental rights. It also places the applicant, and those in a similar position, in an administrative situation that is defeating the very purpose of LGR – an issue that the AG himself acknowledges. A more satisfactory and ambitious alternative would instead be to frame the LGR as protected under the EU Charter.
Continue reading >>From Strasbourg to Luxembourg?
KlimaSeniorinnen has established a remedy which, in EU law, is not easy to locate and may actually be unavailable in light of restrictive CJEU case law. Whatever one’s views on this restrictive case law, it is a fact that the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights now obliges the CJEU to do as much as it can to accommodate the KlimaSeniorinnen remedy and to interpret the relevant TFEU provisions flexibly. One may assume that, sooner or later, the CJEU will be confronted with a KlimaSeniorinnen claim. If the CJEU were to declare such a claim inadmissible, it will put itself in the corner of courts refusing to engage with climate change policies. That would be unfortunate for a court that has long been at the forefront of legal progress.
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Finding Light in Dark Places
Can the new advisory opinion interpreting the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) move us beyond the lethargy of unmet climate change policy needs? The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea established the gravity of this question by stating that “climate change represents an existential threat and raises human rights concerns”. The Tribunal acted both boldly and conservatively by interpreting UNCLOS as an independent source of international legally binding obligations to address climate change and ocean acidification.
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Soft law, hardcore?
Soft law offers the possibility of agile and flexible regulation that can adapt to dynamic digital developments. However, due to its non-binding nature, soft law is not considered to be very effective. With the Digital Services Act (DSA), however, the EU is taking an - at least from a legal dogmatic perspective - unconventional approach by combining hard and soft law in a unique way. The DSA itself is a legally binding EU regulation, but it provides for soft law instruments and even contains provisions for their legal enforcement. Although such regulatory techniques are well known in EU law, they at least call into question the public perception of the DSA as the ‘constitution of the internet’. How far-reaching can such a constitution be that outsources essential issues to (executive-initiated, privately set) soft law?
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Deepfakes, the Weaponisation of AI Against Women and Possible Solutions
In January 2024, social media platforms were flooded with intimate images of pop icon Taylor Swift, quickly reaching millions of users. However, the abusive content was not real; they were deepfakes – synthetic media generated by artificial intelligence (AI) to depict a person’s likeness. But the threat goes beyond celebrities. Virtually anyone (with women being disproportionately targeted) can be a victim of non-consensual intimate deepfakes (NCID). Albeit most agree that companies must be held accountable for disseminating potentially extremely harmful content like NCIDs, effective legal responsibility mechanisms remain elusive. This article proposes concrete changes to content moderation rules as well as enhanced liability for AI providers that enable such abusive content in the first place.
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Dividing the Indivisible
The absence of a number of important human rights instruments from the EU’s Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, notably for indigenous peoples’ and migrants’ rights, are serious omissions and must be rectified at the EU level during the first review of the directive. Given the status of the CSDDD as a directive, Member States also have the freedom to add these missing instruments during national transposition and should do so in order to further honour their commitments under the UNGPs.
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National Human Rights Institutions – Critical but, Overlooked Actors
National Human Rights Institutions are a critical but often overlooked actor in the context of the European Union’s Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive. As we enter the transposition and implementation phases, National Human Rights Institutions can leverage their unique mandate as human rights experts in their jurisdictions to act collectively and individually to ensure that transposition laws meet human rights standards for an effective implementation.
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Follow Me to Unregulated Waters!
In this article, I will demonstrate how some major platforms are failing to properly implement the Digital Service Act's (DSA) rules on notice and action mechanisms. In my view, many platforms are unduly nudging potential notice-senders to submit weak, largely unregulated Community Standards flags. At the same time, platforms are actively deterring users from submitting (strong) notices regulated under the DSA.
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A Comparative Analysis between the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive and the French and German Legislation
This blog post offers an initial comparative glimpse of the most important changes that the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) will bring for the respective mandatory human rights and environmental (HREDD) legislation in Germany and France. While both the French Duty of Vigilance Law and the German Supply Chain Act already require effective HREDD, the CSDDD goes a long way in strengthening the requirements and bringing them more in line with international standards.
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The Electoral Reform in New Caledonia as a Blessing in Disguise
The constitutional amendment recently examined by the French Parliament would allow French citizens, residing in New Caledonia for at least ten years, to take part in local elections. Prompted by President Macron, this electoral reform has led to massive riots in recent weeks involving supporters and opponents of independence for this territory of the French Republic. Local representatives fear that this reform will place the Kanak – the archipelago’s autochthonous people – in an even more inferior position vis-à-vis loyalist militants. Nevertheless, this reform should guarantee better representation of the population of New Caledonia and thereby guarantee the right to vote more widely, in line with the democratic principles of the French Republic.
Continue reading >>Administrative Enforcement of Corporate Human Rights Due Diligence Legislation
Mandatory human rights and environmental due diligence legislation such as the new EU’s Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence (CSDDD) have received praise and critique in practice and scholarship. This contribution assesses the regime of administrative enforcement contained in the CSDDD and asks if it meets the standards of effective remedy.
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ITLOS and the importance of (getting) external rules (right) in interpreting UNCLOS
The Advisory Opinion handed down by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) on 21 May 2024 is truly remarkable. However, while ITLOS succeeded in noting the relevance of many other treaties and customary norms in international law, it fell short of a comprehensive and consistent approach to determining which other treaty norms would be relevant to the interpretation of UNCLOS and how. Establishing coherence by “taking into account external rules” means more than a general reference or a pick-and-choose approach to some relevant norms in an external treaty, while not to others.
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On Kanaks and Caldoches
Over the past week, the French electoral reform in New Caledonia precipitated into violent unrest. Although the French government lifted the state of emergency on Tuesday morning, in an attempt to initiate a process of de-escalation and to renew the dialogue with the independence movement, the reform will eventually move forward. Henceforth, France will further entrench its influence in the South Pacific and effectively deny the Kanak people to achieve their desired self-determination.
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Untying the Gordian Knot
Much like Alexander the Great’s “untying” of the mythical Gordian Knot in ancient Persia, tracking defamation litigation in this year’s US Presidential election season would appear to not only require formal legal training, but resort to some fairly unconventional tactics. But rather than slicing the metaphorical knot with brute force (as legend has it), this article shines a modest but revealing light on the history and principles of US defamation law to assist foreign jurists with its many technicalities and often perplexing uses.
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The Unbearable Lightness of Interfering with the Right to Privacy
The European Court of Justice has once again ruled on national data retention laws. In La Quadrature du Net II, the full court allowed the indiscriminate retention of IP addresses for the purpose of fighting copyright infringement. It seems that the Court is slowly but surely abandoning its role as guardian of the right to privacy, as it now allows member states to collect vast amounts of data on their citizens in order to solve even the most minor of crimes.
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Conditions of Corporate Civil Liability in the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive
The civil liability provision of the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) in Article 29 has been highly debated during the entire drafting and negotiation process of the Directive, but it held on. Where harm occurs, will Article 29 CSDDD fulfill its function to provide a right to remedy for the affected individuals and legal clarity for the companies at the same time?
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Access to Supply Chain Justice?
One of the novel features of the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive is a private law liability for damages caused upstream in the supply chain. However, liability under substantive law is worthless without procedural rules that allow for its enforcement. Within the context of supply chain liability there are at least two major procedural problems. First, victims affected by supply chain mishandlings might be unable to afford proceedings in Europe. Second, proving that a company has not exercised a sufficient level of diligence can be difficult. Art. 29 para. 3 CSDDD seeks to address those issues.
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A Small But Important Step
While no advisory opinion can solve the climate crisis, the ITLOS decision does provide an important push for action, both globally and at the national level. It cleared the way for the ICJ’s forthcoming opinion on climate change, demonstrating how a clear and solid line of arguments can be developed. Although the ICJ may decide differently due to variations in the questions posed and treaties interpreted, it is unlikely to diverge significantly from the ITLOS narrative or reject its findings on related topics.
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Consensus, at what Cost?
After four applications for provisional measures, three sets of formal orders and two rounds of oral hearings, on Friday night, the International Court of Justice in South Africa v. Israel delivered a long-awaited Order. It is, to be frank, most unsatisfactory. While the Court is known for its “Solomonic” decisions, which try to give each party a little of what they asked for at times to no one’s satisfaction, this is not a maritime boundary delimitation where equidistance can be imposed in pursuit of impartiality.
Continue reading >>Harmonization Pains but Stakeholders’ Gain
The Article 13 EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive is home of the meaningful engagement provision. It is significantly more robust than similar provisions in national due diligence legislation in France, Germany and Norway. Despite the fact that a number of differences between EU CSDDD and these national laws is likely to give rise to some “harmonization pains”, one silver lining exists: stakeholders gain some leverage.
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The ITLOS Advisory Opinion and Marine Geoengineering
The ITLOS advisory opinion does little to resolve the long-standing uncertainty regarding the legal status of marine geoengineering activities. On the contrary, the opinion raises more questions than it answers. ITLOS seems content to leave those questions to others. Indeed, in the advisory opinion, ITLOS noted that “marine geoengineering has been the subject of discussions and regulations in various fora,” including the London Convention and Protocol. But after nearly twenty years, the regulatory framework for marine geoengineering adopted by the parties to the London Convention and Protocol is still not, strictly speaking, legally binding. Perhaps the advisory opinion will spur the parties into action.
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Unboxing the New EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive
There is a lot to unpack in the now final text of the Directive. The German Institute for Human Rights offers initial analysis in this blog symposium, which starts with this contribution. The contributions engage with the final text of the Directive and give some initial guidance for interpretation and transposition requirements. Topics covered include a critical reflection on the neo-colonial context of the the law-making process, access to justice and administrative supervision measures for rightsholders, the scope of human and environmental rights that are covered by the Directive as well as the transposition phase with comparative analysis in the context of existing national due diligence legislation, its extraterritorial reach and the involvement of National Human Rights Institutions.
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The East German Gap
Reflecting on guiding principles and content, history and practice.
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Leerstelle Ostdeutschland
Nachdenken über Leitideen und Inhalte, Geschichte und Praxis.
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A Collision Foretold
On 16 May, four Dutch parties presented a new governing agreement (Agreement). The four parties PVV, VVD, NSC, and BBB will form one of the most right-wing governments in Dutch history. They vow to impose the strictest migration policy to date. The proposed migration measures under the Agreement endanger the fundamental rights of migrants and people applying for international protection. The plan also put the Netherlands on a collision course with the EU as many of the measures are contrary to the provisions in the EU Migration Pact, which was adopted last week.
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After Switzerland Comes Austria
The KlimaSeniorinnen judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has been the subject of intense debate for several weeks. One focus was on the question of standing, i.e., who can bring a lawsuit connected to climate change and human rights before the ECtHR. However, less attention has been paid to the question of the impact of the judgment on currently pending climate change cases before the ECtHR. This blog post sheds light on “climate change case number four”, a case against Austria primarily challenging the shortcomings of the Austrian Climate Protection Act.
Continue reading >>Unlocking UNCLOS
By advancing a more holistic vision of climate-relevant international law—one that seeks to harmonise but also allow for complementary interaction amongst the obligations set under different regimes—the ITLOS advisory opinion offers hope. It holds out the promise of a synergistic international legal response to climate change that better maps to the integrated and interconnected nature the ecosystems at stake and to the multi-pronged regulatory effort that will be needed to safeguard our climate system.
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On Rebuilding and … Keeping the Rule of Law
When I think about the challenge of rebuilding the rule of law in Poland after years filled with unimaginably lawless legal and factual acts and hateful words tearing the Polish Constitution to shreds and offering adequate recipes, the starting point is framing the discussion. A correct description of the starting point determines the route and provides the background against which one can evaluate more detailed legislative choices made along the way. The route must be determined by “fidelity to the Constitution”. Finally, our avowed destination must be framed in clear terms as restoring the meaning and respect to the basic elements of the Polish legal order. I argue that the latter must become the new narrative of lawyers, politicians and citizens alike if we are to succeed.
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Nigeria as a Safe Country of Origin?
On May 7th 2024 Italy updated its list of safe countries of origin (SCO) for the second time after the introduction of the notion in the national legal system in 2019. Notably, the latest update retained the most contentious addition to the list from last year, Nigeria. Until then, only Cyprus considered Nigeria as generally safe. The legal issues underlying this designation illustrate how country of origin information (COI), largely provided to Member States by the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), is (mis)used to produce policy-based evidence rather than evidence-based policies.
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Elisabeth Selbert
Dr. Elisabeth Selbert, who took her A levels in self-study and completed her law degree in six semesters, did her doctorate – ahead of her time – on the principle of irretrievable breakdown of marriage. As a member of the Parliamentary Council, she was one of the four ‘mothers’ of the German Constitution. The inclusion of ‘Men and women shall have equal rights’ in Art. 3 (2) of the Basic Law (‘Grundgesetz’) is her merit. On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the ‘Grundgesetz’, this contribution aims to portray her life, achievements and impact in a short profile.
Continue reading >>The ITLOS Advisory Opinion on Climate Change
On May 21, 2024, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) delivered a long-awaited Advisory Opinion on climate change and international law. This marks the first time that an international tribunal has issued an advisory opinion on State obligations regarding climate change mitigation. The Advisory Opinion addresses several key questions regarding application of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in the context of climate change. There is much to explore in terms of both the content of the ITLOS advisory opinion and its potential implications for global, regional, and local efforts to combat climate change. To facilitate discussion and the exchange of ideas, the Sabin Center's Climate Law Blog and Verfassungsblog are partnering on a blog symposium on the ITLOS opinion. In this first, introductory blog, we outline the background to the advisory opinion and highlight some of the key takeaways from it.
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Immanuel Kant’s 300th Birthday, Human Dignity, and the German Constitution
Immanuel Kant, born on April 22, 1724, would have celebrated his 300th birthday this year. And the German Constitution, the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) turns 75 years old in a few weeks. What do these two mean to each other? What does Kant's philosophy have to do with the Basic Law?
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Gaza, Artificial Intelligence, and Kill Lists
The Israeli army has developed an artificial intelligence-based system called “Lavender”. This approach promises faster and more accurate targeting; however, human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch (HRW) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) have warned of deficits in responsibility for violations of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). In the following, we will examine these concerns and show how responsibility for violations of IHL remains attributable to a state that uses automated or semi-automated systems in warfare.
Continue reading >>Litigating the EU-Turkey Deal
Earlier this year three Dutch NGOs sued the Netherlands for approving and carrying out the EU-Turkey deal. They argue that the Dutch government should be held responsible for the dire conditions under which asylum seekers have been held under on Greek islands since the deal has been concluded, which have repeatedly been found to violate human rights. In this blog, I sketch the context of litigation surrounding the EU-Turkey deal which has driven the NGOs to sue in the Dutch national legal system and explain the promise and pitfalls of the rise of strategic litigation in the sphere of migration and asylum law.
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Antidiskriminierungsklauseln im Zuwendungs- und Förderungsrecht
Der Berliner Senat lässt sich nicht beirren vom Scheitern der Antisemitismusklausel des Berliner Kultursenators Chialo für die Förderung von Kunst. Nun erwägt er, sein Zuwendungsrecht insgesamt so zu ändern, dass die Vergabe von Zuwendungen an bestimmte Auflagen und Auswahlkriterien geknüpft wird. Das Ziel, mit staatlichen Geldern nicht Antisemitismus zu fördern, ist wichtig und begrüßenswert. Eine Regelung im Rahmen des Zuwendungsrechts stößt freilich auf verfassungsrechtliche Bedenken, die die uns bekannten bisherigen Stellungnahmen nur unzureichend berücksichtigen.
Continue reading >>Upgrading Environmental Rights
In Community of La Oroya v. Peru the IACtHR for the first time found a violation of the autonomous right to a healthy environment in a non-indigenous context related to the long-lasting environmental contamination of a community by toxic substances. La Oroya lays foundational principles that will likely shape the content and direction of environmental and climate change litigation and jurisprudence in the Americas. This historic judgment provides a robust basis for anticipating how the Court will handle the specification of environmental rights within the climate emergency and how it may accordingly inform States’ human rights obligations.
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La Oroya and Inter-American Innovations on the Right to a Healthy Environment
In La Oroya v. Peru, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights declared Peru responsible for violating several rights, including the right to a healthy environment, due to the environmental degradation and health crises in La Oroya—one of the world’s most polluted cities. Regarding the right to a healthy environment, the Court addresses for the first time pollution in air, water, and soil—marking a departure from previous cases that primarily focused on communal property rights and deforestation—and even goes as far as to refer to the right to a healthy environment as jus cogens. Such innovations would have not been possible without the ever-expanding horizon of Inter-American case law and approaches.
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What Does the European Court of Human Rights’ First Climate Change Decision Mean for Climate Policy?
On 9 April the European Court of Human Rights issued its first ever comprehensive decision in a climate litigation case. The ECtHR has set out clear directions for member states to follow to align their climate policies with human rights obligations. Domestic legislators across Europe must give these requirements serious consideration to ensure their climate laws not only meet these minimum standards but also effectively contribute to global climate goals. This is imperative for both environmental sustainability and the protection of fundamental human rights that climate change is affecting.
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The New Transgender Ruling in Czechia
In a recent decision in the case of N.G. (Pl. ÚS 52/23), the Czech Constitutional Court (CCC) addressed the pressing issue of trans persons’ rights, more specifically the requirements for legal gender reassignment, involving (often involuntary) sterilisation and castration. When compared to the earlier decision in T.H. (Pl. ÚS 2/20), the new ruling represents a major shift. In fact, the CCC changed its legal position by 180 degrees, giving preference to protecting individual rights over deferring to the legislator’s choices.
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Bend it like Britain?
After months of parliamentary ping-pong, the UK Parliament passed the “Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Act” in late April. Not even two weeks later, 66 persons were detained to be deported to Rwanda, and the FDA launched an unprecedented legal action before the High Court, claiming the Act conflicts with the Civil Service Code obligation to “uphold the rule of law and administration of justice.” By seeking to avoid the prohibition of refoulement, the Act undermines both core principles of the rule of law and disapplies fundamental human rights protections. This blog post discusses key provisions of the new Act, the concerns they raise and some remaining avenues for legal challenges.
Continue reading >>A “Me too” Movement in the Equestrian Arena?
“Never look a gift horse in the mouth” is a well-known saying, yet the proverb might recently have gained new meaning. Just before the recent World Cup finals in dressage and show jumping in Riyad, there were reports about horses with blue tongues in the dressage sport. These non-human athletes did not get enough air, presumably due to overly tight bridles and excessive pressure applied by their riders. Currently, animal protection is not sufficiently harmonized and enforced in the EU, but there are reasons to be hopeful. The EU should take the lead and require member States to implement comprehensive animal protection systems.
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Climate, Constitution and Party Politics
Recent developments in Scotland in relation to climate targets have presented interesting questions for both constitutional and climate law. After proudly announcing itself as a nation with world-leading targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and giving these legally binding status, now that it has been realised that the 2030 target will not be reached, that target has been abandoned. In turn, this has been the catalyst for the break-up of the two-party arrangement that supported the government and the resignation of the First Minister who faced losing a vote of confidence.
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Challenges to Georgia’s EU Integration: Is the Georgian ‘Russian Law 2.0’ contrary to the Georgian Constitution?
The so-called Euro-Atlantic provisions have been inserted into the Georgian constitution in 2018 and aim “to ensure the full integration of Georgia into the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization“. The Georgian draft law ‘On Transparency of Foreign Influence’, the so-called ‘Russian Law 2.0’, is likely to be contrary to those Euro-Atlantic provisions in the Georgian Constitution. Georgia has EU candidate status since late 2023. According to statements by EU representatives, the law is incompatible with Georgia’s EU aspirations. If the law is passed by Parliament, despite ongoing pro-Western protests in the streets of Tbilisi, it remains to be seen what the constitutional Court will make of it, and whether Russian influence can be contained by the Court, which is itself, under pro-Russian political influence.
Continue reading >>The Autocratic Party-Structure of PiS
Political parties are the heart of every parliamentary democracy. This post aims to explore what categorises political party-structure as autocratic and postulates a reform of political parties in Poland as partially inspired by German legal solutions. Namely, the main executive body of the party must consist of at least three members elected no less frequently than every two years. Furthermore, all party members must be allowed to propose electoral candidates. Finally, decisions on party offices and electoral nominations must be carried out by a secret ballot.
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Bertha Maria Júlia Lutz
Bertha Maria Júlia Lutz was an acknowledged scientist, a women’s rights activist, a politician, and a diplomat. Mostly known for being one of four women to sign the United Nations Charter in 1945 and assuring the inclusion of the rights of women in its preamble, she also played a vital role in attaining women’s suffrage in Brazil.
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On the border, the war is relatively close
500 meters away from Poland.
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Legalising Illegality
Following Russia’s on-going facilitation of migrants to the Finnish border since last fall, Finland’s newly formed right-wing coalition government has closed the eastern land border indefinitely on 4 April 2024. Worried that this step will not be enough to ensure national security, the government is finalising a Draft Act on Temporary Measures to Combat Instrumentalised Migration, currently under revision.The draft bill allows for pushbacks in violation of non-refoulement and openly admits a conflict with Finland’s human rights obligations, EU law and own constitutional system, which is unusual. The unprecedented nature of the proposed measures is particularly worrying given that the Act appears unlikely to effectively address the essentially political problem that “migrant instrumentalisation” poses.
Continue reading >>Reparation for Climate Change at the ECtHR
The recent rulings on climate change by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) are—as others have pointed out in this blog symposium—both “historic and unprecedented” for various reasons, not least regarding the question of reparation for climate change-related harm. While redress is a pivotal question to think through in relation to climate change, it has, somewhat surprisingly, received less attention from scholars and has not yet been directly addressed by international courts and tribunals. In this regard, Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland might be considered a missed opportunity on the part of the ECtHR.
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Not a Disaster, but a Missed Opportunity
Following lengthy negotiations within Germany’s coalition government, on 26 April 2024, the Bundestag passed an amendment to the Federal Climate Protection Act. One part of the amendment in particular has drawn sharp criticism from environmental NGOs, experts, and commentators: the abolition of annual, sector-based targets for greenhouse gas emissions reduction, which form the basis of the obligation for ministries to submit ‘immediate action programmes’ (Sofortprogramme). We argue that many critics overestimated the effectiveness of the Sofortprogramm mechanism, as enshrined in the original version of the KSG, in enforcing Germany's ambitious climate targets. Instead, we must realistically assess the potential, and limits, of institutional design to deliver ambitious climate policy.
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KlimaSeniorinnen and Gender
This blog post discusses the relevance of the KlimaSeniorinnen case to the discussion of vulnerability and intersectional gender in climate litigation. To date, very few climate cases have addressed the gendered dimensions of climate change and there was some hope that this case would. However, as this post argues, despite the fact that KlimaSeniorinnen is a case about the impacts of climate change on elderly women, the Court fails to meaningfully engage with gender as a determinant of the harms suffered by individuals. Gender remains an overlooked issue in climate litigation.
Continue reading >>The Genre-Bending of Climate Litigation in India
In a widely acclaimed judgment, India recently saw its first climate ruling issued by the Supreme Court. The Court derived the right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change from Article 21 and Article 14 of the Constitution. The ruling of the Supreme Court has been classified in this blog as an important step in connecting human rights and climate change. In this blog post, I offer another overarching route that cases connected to climate change in India have taken, which is genre-bending in that they use environmental litigation as the pathway to also address climate change.
Continue reading >>Unboxing the EU Body for Ethical Standards
The creation of a dedicated EU Body for Ethical Standards carries the potential to mark a qualitative difference in the development of the EU ethics system as we know it. The contributions shows the strengths and looming pitfalls of the new Body.
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KlimaSeniorinnen and the Question(s) of Causation
In Verein Klimaseniorinnen Schweiz and Others v Switzerland, the European Court of Human Rights makes many general statements about the nature of climate change and different actors’ roles in addressing it. Many points have been addressed in this blog symposium. In my blog post, I turn to a more technical aspect of the judgment, namely the question of causation. I will untangle the analytical gymnastics that the Court performs regarding this question. I will argue that the reasoning regarding causation is confusing and that it is not clear how specifically the ‘real prospect’ test is applied for finding a breach.
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3½ Myths about EU law on Citizenship for Sale
The sale of national and European Union citizenship understandably remains highly controversial. It seems arbitrary, perhaps even abject, to grant nationality in exchange for a monetary investment, when most people must wait years and overcome considerable hurdles before they can naturalize. As evidenced by three recent posts on the Verfassungsblog by Joseph H.H. Weiler, Merijn Chamon, and Lorin-Johannes Wagner, this question continues to divide EU law scholars. It is also a question that is still plagued by several myths about how EU law and, relatedly, international law, apply to CBI practices. This post discusses 3½ such myths.
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The EU Association Agreement with Andorra and San Marino
On 26 April 2024, the European Commission put forward a proposal for the Council to conclude the Association Agreement (AA) between the European Union and Andorra and San Marino. The AA with Andorra and San Marino goes another step further and introduces in an unprecedented manner the supervision and jurisdiction of the European Commission and the Court of Justice (CJEU) in the context of an association agreement. Accordingly, the Union may now have fully exhausted its association competence when it comes to the depth of integration it may offer third countries.
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Unconstitutionality à l’Anglaise
After long and tortuous proceedings in Parliament, the Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Act 2024 finally received Royal Assent on Thursday 25 April. There are so many problems with the Act and they are so fundamental that there has been speculation that the courts might refuse to apply some of the Act’s provisions. In this blogpost, I suggest that aside from the ‘hard-line’ approach of striking down or disapplying the statute in whole or in part, the courts also have a ‘soft-line’ option of declaring its unconstitutionality without denying its status as binding law. I explain how such an intervention might fit into the constitutional tradition of the UK and what may make it attractive in the case at hand.
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The Reform of the EU Fiscal Rules
The reform of European economic governance has been in the air for quite some time, but it was not until 2023 that the Commission put forward the most substantial development since the Maastricht Treaty. In April 2024, the European Parliament, along with the Council, approved all three legislative proposals. These measures strengthen European economic security by protecting the sustainability of the Union's debt. Without examining the legislations’ details, this blog post reveals a propensity within EU economic governance towards neo-protectionism of the EU’s financial interests.
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The Battle for Immunity
The International Law Commission is preparing to continue discussions on Draft Articles on the Immunity of State Officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction at its forthcoming 75th summer session. This article focuses on two issues: the scope of immunity and its exceptions. These issues, which are widely discussed internationally, are far from being resolved. In this state of flux, a common ground is needed to move forward, which I try to outline in this blog post.
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From Gaza to Manhattan and Back
The real protectors of the universities.
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Why Europe Needs a Harmonised Access to Information Act
May the 3rd marks press freedom day around the world. Today, many articles and editorials will be published across Europe, highlighting the need to put an end to threats faced by journalists in Member States. While all these pan-European threats certainly need to be tackled, one fundamental pan-European crisis faced by journalists across the continent remains widely ignored: the difficulties to access information held by public authorities and the disparities among Member States when requesting data. This article aims to review the current situation of the right to request information from public bodies in EU Member States and offers a proposal that opens the door to discussing the possibility of harmonising such a right through the internal market competence.
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A Human Right to Climate Protection as “Life-Saving Treatment”?
Manuela Niehaus defends the human rights-based climate jurisprudence - especially of the ECtHR - against my criticism. It is not "Homeophatic Globules for Environmental Lawyers", but a potentially life-saving medicine that - in combination with other means - can make a significant contribution to climate protection.
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The UK Parliament, the UK-Rwanda Agreement and the CPTPP
On April 1, 2024, the Ponsonby Rule, the constitutional convention that set the standard for Parliament’s role in how the UK makes treaties, turned 100. But the procedure for Parliament’s involvement in treaty-making is no longer fit for purpose. As the UK-Rwanda and CPTPPP Agreements show, the UK Parliament’s role in treaty-making must be reformed. In particular, the House of Commons must obtain the power to have a formal vote on international agreements before they can become binding on the UK.
Continue reading >>China’s Memory Laws
The study of ‘memory laws’ has seen a spectacular rise in recent years as governments worldwide are reverting to formal legislation to shape and secure their preferred historical discourses and outlaw narratives subverting these. Despite the increasingly global nature of this phenomenon, this budding scholarly genre has remained largely preoccupied with developments in Europe. Until very recently, Chinese memory laws have been overlooked in these discussions. It is time to start paying attention to them.
Continue reading >>Why the Provisional Measures Order in Nicaragua v. Germany severely limits Germany’s ability to transfer arms to Israel
In an application before the International Court of Justice brought by Nicaragua against Germany, Nicaragua requested that the ICJ indicate provisional measures as a matter of extreme urgency with respect to Germany’s ‘participation in the ongoing plausible genocide and serious breaches of international humanitarian law and other peremptory norms of general international law occurring in the Gaza Strip’. While Nicaragua did not get any of the provisional measures requested, the request for provisional measures may nevertheless have achieved its aim of preventing Germany from providing arms to Israel for use in the Gaza Strip.
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Ten Commandments to Stifle Academic Freedom
Since 2010, the beginning of the populist takeover and the authoritarian transition, Hungary has gathered a lot of experience on how to dismantle academic freedom. This knowledge can be useful for other autocrats as well. But even if we don’t want to give them tips on how to repeat what happened and is happening in this country, it might still be worth reconstructing how it all took place. This can be especially useful for calculating what to expect from autocrats and preparing how to defend against them.
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Nicaragua Comes Up Empty
On 30 April 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) rejected a request by Nicaragua for the indication of provisional measures in connection with claims relating to Germany’s support for Israel in the ongoing Gaza conflict. In a terse, sparsely-reasoned decision, the Court decided 15-1 that the circumstances were ‘not such as to require the exercise of its power under Article 41 of the Statute to indicate provisional measures’. While this outcome was not necessarily surprising to those who had followed the proceedings, the Court’s approach—in which it declined to address the usual requirements for the indication of provisional measures—was unusual.
Continue reading >>International Trade and “Embedded Emissions” after KlimaSeniorinnen
A key and underrated aspect of the recent triad of climate rulings of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) is that the ECtHR has brought to the fore the role of trade-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in states’ carbon footprints. While most international climate agreements focus on the reduction of domestic GHG emissions, in the Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland Judgment (KlimaSeniorinnen), the ECtHR found ‘attributable’ to Switzerland the GHG emissions taking place abroad, ‘embedded’ into goods (and possibly services) ‘consumed’ in Switzerland. As I will argue, the ruling appears to require Switzerland to adopt a climate-oriented trade policy.
Continue reading >>Globules or Life-Saving Treatment after all? On the Effect of Climate Lawsuits
In her response to the post by Bernhard Wegener, who criticizes climate lawsuits as ineffective globules, Manuela Niehaus illustrates the effect of climate lawsuits. She argues that not everything that tastes sweet is just ineffective homeopathy.
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Chaos, Verwirrung und republikanischer Kurswechsel
Das US-amerikanische Abtreibungsrecht ist schwer nachvollziehbar – für Schwangere, für Ärzt:innen, und auch für außenstehende Beobachter, die verstehen wollen, wie Abtreibung mit den Präsidentschaftswahlen 2024 verstrickt ist. Die Geschichte ist kompliziert, dynamisch und noch nicht vorbei. Eine Warnung in den Worten von Bette Davis: “Fasten your seatbelts; it’s going to be a bumpy night”.
Continue reading >>Separation of Powers and KlimaSeniorinnen
Especially in Switzerland, the KlimaSeniorinnen ruling has been met with sharp criticism. The rightwing Swiss People’s party (Schweizerische Volkspartei, SVP) (predictably) accused the Court of judicial overreach and demanded that Switzerland leave the Council of Europe. The ECtHR decision directly addresses separation of powers and the role of the judiciary in adjudicating human rights, specifically in the context of climate change. This post unpacks the decision and argues that concerns about ECtHR overreach are unwarranted. It shows how the judgment forms an integral part of democratic governance (particularly in Switzerland) whilst being conducive to better laws and policies.
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Chaos, Confusion and Republican Change-Up
Grasping the rules for getting an abortion in the American states is no easy matter for pregnant women, for abortion doctors, or for outside observers trying to understand how deeply entangled abortion is with the 2024 Presidential Election in November. The story is complicated, fast-moving, and not over yet. As Bette Davis warned her party guests, “Fasten your seatbelts; it’s going to be a bumpy night”.
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Rebuilding the Rule of Law
The victory of the opposition in the parliamentary elections in Poland in 2023 followed by the formation of a coalition government paved the way for the rebuilding of the rule of law after a period of its systematic violation during the 8-year rule of PiS. The first four months of the new government have already shown that this process will not be easy. However, certain actions aimed at rebuilding the violated standards have already been taken. Three goals and values should be among the guiding principles in the process of rebuilding the rule of law in Poland: legalism, legal certainty, and building citizens' trust in public institutions.
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The Enemy Within
Naivety persists when it comes to understanding the scope of the hybrid war that Russia is currently waging against us, with the role played by the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban being a good example. European diplomats, politicians and commentators continue to underestimate the security risk that he poses as Putin's willing puppet. As a result, they are right now sleepwalking into what will likely be a disastrous Hungarian EU Presidency, not only for the Union itself but also for Ukraine.
Continue reading >>The European Court of Human Rights’ April 9 Climate Rulings and the Future (Thereof)
By recognizing the responsibility they have toward future individuals who will be standing in their shoes, current decision-makers are encouraged to adopt long-term perspectives and consider the broader implications of their actions beyond the immediate. This responsibility is echoed in numerous statements by the ECtHR in its rulings about how it understands its own role in European society and the world, and about the deference it believes it owes to domestic decision-makers on the one hand, and to its own past and future work on the other hand. In this light, the ECtHR has struck a pragmatic yet slightly cynical balance between the great demands it was faced with and the great responsibilities it owes to European citizens, to other institutions, and to itself.
Continue reading >>Overcoming Big Tech AI Merger Evasions: Innovating EU Competition Law through the AI Act
To develop AI, computing power and access to data (aka bigness) are crucial. Now, Big Tech companies appear evading EU competition law. Companies like Google and Microsoft evade the EU Merger Regulation by entering partnerships with smaller AI labs that fall short of shifting ownership but nevertheless increase the monopolistic power of Big Tech. These quasi-mergers are particularly problematic in the context of generative AI, which relies even more than many other services on incredibly vast computing power. That is a dire state from an economic as well as a more fundamental and democratic perspective, as concentrating economic might in the hands of very few companies may cause problems down the road.
Continue reading >>Uniting the Indian Opposition
More than 35 parties have come together to form a big-tent united opposition bloc called the ‘Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance’ (“INDIA”) to jointly fight the BJP in the 2024 General Elections. They believe that if the opposition could field a single common candidate against every BJP candidate, they could potentially defeat the BJP or at least challenge its ambitious goal of winning a supermajority. The strategy of uniting the opposition against an electorally strong and populist leader is not uncommon, both for India and globally. In the following paragraphs, I’ll discuss how this strategy has played out in the recent past and what lessons INDIA could learn from such a global experience.
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Unfrei, Unfair und Unsicher
Es ist notwendig, sich zu vergegenwärtigen, dass Wahlen mehr umfassen als den bloßen Akt der Stimmenabgabe am Wahltag.
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Unfree, Unfair, and Insecure
It is essential to recognize that elections encompass more than just the act of casting votes on election day.
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Long Live Nottebohm
Next year, Nottebohm will be turning 70. Only very recently, Weiler, on this blog, made the point that the argument of a genuine link – underpinning the case of the Commission against the Maltese golden passport scheme – is unconvincing and rests on a “tendentious reading of Nottebohm”. Yet, in Commission v Malta, the CJEU may well reinvigorate a European debate about the genuine links that bind us. I, for once, would argue it is high time to make the point that nationality is not just anything a State makes of it.
Continue reading >>Who is afraid of actio popularis?
If, as the German experience suggests, the actio popularis exclusion serves to bar individuals from invoking objective illegality that does not concern rights, while standing of associations is a way to enforce objective legality despite the actio popularis exclusion, it is hard to see why this should have any relevance for the European Convention of Human Rights. Human rights are, after all, rights.
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The Paris Effect
The judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in the case Verein KlimaSeniorinnen v. Switzerland is a striking example of the Paris effect: the influence of the non-binding collective goals of the Paris Agreement (PA) on the interpretation of domestic constitutional law or international human rights law in climate litigation. The Court’s decision proves to be an essential element in triggering the necessary democratic debates on which the PA relies “from the bottom up”. Reinforcing the procedural limb of Art. 8 ECHR will be an essential step towards further strengthening democratic decision-making in the societal transition to climate neutrality.
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India’s New Constitutional Climate Right
The Supreme Court of India delivered a historic judgement on climate change and human rights in M.K. Ranjitsinh and Others v. Union of India and Others (hereinafter “M.K. Ranjitsinh”) on March 21, 2024. A three-judge bench of the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice, D.Y. Chandrachud, formulated a new constitutional right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change by drawing upon Article 21 (the fundamental right to life and personal liberty) and Article 14 (the fundamental right to equality) of the Indian Constitution. The final judgement is a remarkable development for the evolution of constitutional climate litigation in India
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The Ball is in the Game
In 2017 strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs) became an important topic on the EU level. As a result, the EU adopted the anti-SLAPP Directive, which shall protect journalists from abusive lawsuits that do not serve justice but only the sinister aim of silencing free press. However, there is important litigation as well. In 2024 the Real Madrid Club de Fútbol vs Le Monde case addressed the problem of exorbitant damages targeting press and introducing a deterrent effect on freedom of speech in transnational cases. From a rule of law and, especially, freedom of the press angle, the case is of paramount importance as it forwards a simple but groundbreaking argument: two of EU law’s most fundamental principles, mutual recognition and freedom of speech, are a strong basis to fight SLAPPs.
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Rallying under a Nazi Swastika Flag
On April 5th, 2024, the Helsinki Court of Appeal held that rallying under a Nazi swastika flag constituted an offense of incitement to hatred, namely, agitation against a group of population. Contrary to German law, Finnish law does not include any specific prohibition of symbols of this kind. It therefore leaves it open under which circumstances the public use of symbols such as those linked with the Nazi regime in fact constitute a criminal offense. Against this background, the Court of Appeal’s conclusion is to be welcomed. Had the outcome been different, this would have triggered a set of difficult questions of how to amend the regulatory framework in order to address this issue. The judgment may, however, still be appealed.
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Pushbacks From Europe’s Borders Enter the Mainstream
The Polish reckoning with the illiberal turn of the past years seemingly does not apply to the unlawful practice of pushbacks on the Poland-Belarus border. The unlawful practices, best exemplified by pushbacks, have come to be accepted in the European mainstream. The humanitarian crisis on the Poland-Belarus border and its handling by the new government, together with its rejection of the New Pact on Migration and Asylum, vividly illustrates this point.
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The End of a Dream?
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) may have officially declared war on the hijab in 2022, but the Hindu right’s battle strategy has been set in place since at least 2014 when the BJP rose to power under the leadership of Narendra Modi. A tenacious master of populism, the BJP has successfully altered the mainstream Hindu perception of the Muslim as a threat to secularism. Within this imaginary, Muslims are believed to constantly seek exemptions from the secular regulations constraining the Hindu community.
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Im Zweifel gegen die Freiverantwortlichkeit
Das Landgericht Berlin I hat einen pensionierten Arzt wegen Suizidhilfe zu einer Freiheitsstrafe von drei Jahren verurteilt. Hier zeigt sich einmal mehr, dass die Maßstäbe, die der Bundesgerichtshof und das Bundesverfassungsgericht in den letzten Jahren zur Suizidassistenz bei psychisch erkrankten Menschen formuliert haben, weder für die Praxis noch für die Tatgerichte verlässliche Leitlinien bieten. Damit dürfte sich die Chance psychisch Erkrankter, Hilfe bei der Umsetzung ihres Sterbewunsches zu erhalten, bis zu einer Grundsatzentscheidung des Bundesgerichtshofs bzw. einer gesetzlichen Regelung verringern.
Continue reading >>A Proposal Towards a European Defence Union
In the context of profound (geo-)political changes, and following the Conference on the Future of Europe, the European Parliament (EP) adopted proposals for a Treaty reform for the area of defence. This blog post analyses the proposed formation of the European Defence Union (EDU) and the introduction of qualified majority voting (QMV) while concluding that the new framework would likely create contradictory outcomes and undesirably challenge the current constitutional balance.
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Schengen’s Paper Pushbacks
On Wednesday, the 24th of April, the European Parliament will vote on a reform of the Schengen Border Code (SBC). The reform appears to institutionalize existing patterns of denying access to rights for people on the move by introducing “transfer-procedures”. Expulsions without procedural safeguards have become common practice at internal borders throughout the EU. The proposed regulation raises concerns over its unclear resolution of potential conflict with EU secondary and primary law, particularly its incompatibility with children’s rights standards, and its application in practice.
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“Very Tight Control”
In 2020, at the height of the Covid crisis, the EU had its 'Hamiltonian Moment'. To overcome the pandemic's economic shock, Member States agreed to back an unprecedented, capital markets-based 750 billion Euro funding scheme to kickstart the European economy. However, since then, it proved surprisingly hard to make sense of where all the money went. Apparently, one main oversight body is a rather informal committee of Member States. Now, internal documents paint a picture of peer scrutiny that remains at a general level, is conducted under tight deadlines, and is strongly limited by scarce resources. They also reveal an evolution of the process to a point what looks much like a mere formality.
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The First Italian Climate Judgement and the Separation of Powers
On 26th February 2024, in its Giudizio Universale decision, the Tribunal of Rome penned the first Italian climate judgement. Shortly after, on 9 April 2024, the ECtHR handed down its seminal trio of KlimaSeniorinnen v. Switzerland, Duarte Agostinho v. Portugal and Others and Carême v. France. In this monumental string of cases, the ECtHR set the new standard for climate litigation in Europe, also regarding separation of powers. This invites a critical assessment of Giudizio Universale’s stance.
Continue reading >>Selective, Reactive and Liminal
With a staggering 450 million internal migrants (as of the 2011 census), migration has become integral to the political economy of India. India also has the largest diaspora in the world, numbering 18 million people. The modes, institutions, and ideological underpinnings of migration governance vis-à-vis both internal and international migration have witnessed substantial shifts and continuities ever since the ascendance of the NDA (National Democratic Alliance) led Modi government in 2014.
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Ein komplexer Konflikt
Der Wettbewerb um Ressourcen, Macht und Einfluss.
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Without a Doubt
The German Federal Court of Justice recently announced that the exclusion of functional immunity for foreign state officials in cases of international crimes is “without a doubt” part of customary international law. Like many others in academic literature, we agree with this conclusion – the German government would be well advised to embrace it and put an end to its long-standing ambiguous position on the matter.
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The Right to Education and Democratic Backsliding in India
Since the election of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) to power in the federal elections in India in 2014, the country’s performance in key indicators of democratic quality has suffered. Over the course of its two terms in power, the party has sought to subvert key institutions for accountability, enact an ethno-cultural majoritarian electoral agenda, and use federal law enforcement agencies against their political opponents. While there is extensive literature on the erosion of civil-political rights in the past ten years, the effects of the BJP government on social rights like education and healthcare remain under-explored. Therefore, in this post, I explore three striking dimensions of primary educational policy under the BJP government.
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The European Court of Human Rights’ Kick Into Touch
On April 9, 2024, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) ruled on three applications concerning the fight against climate change and the positive obligations of the signatory states of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in this respect. This blog post analyzes the Carême decision in which the Court declared inadmissible an application brought by a former mayor of a French town on the grounds of incompatibility ratione personae with the provisions of the Convention within the meaning of Article 35 § 3 (§ 88). In my view, this is an ill-developed decision, which could dangerously imply a regression in environmental matters.
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A Malfunctioning System
Party bans do not represent a serious threat to neo-fascist movements in Italy. Despite a constitutional provision and an ordinary law regulating the issue, their use has so far been limited to associations of minor size and relevance.
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KlimaSeniorinnen and the Choice Between Imperfect Options
The facts of Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland were categorically different from the ECtHR’s previous environmental case law. The Court therefore decided to incorporate important parts of International Climate Change Law into the ECHR. From an institutional perspective, this approach, which is not without its weaknesses, amounts to the ECtHR’s attempt to maintain the relevance of the Convention in the midst of the climate crisis, while, at the same, carefully striving to respect the realm of politics.
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Solidarity Crimes, Legitimacy Limits
The criminalisation of humanitarianism has become pervasive in the EU over the last two decades. Overbroad definitions of the crimes of facilitation of irregular entry, transit and stay produce well known noxious effects on the human rights of migrants and civil society organisations. Nevertheless, the tendency has been to tighten the rules rather than contesting the EU’s failure to pursue a migration control system that is ‘fair towards third-country nationals’ and constructed ‘with respect for fundamental rights.’ In this blogpost, I argue that the EU legislator’s disregard for the human rights impacts of the facilitation regime constitutes an abuse of power. Legislative measures that have the effect of subverting legally enshrined principles (Arts 2, 6 & 21 TEU) and suppress the rights of civil society and the migrants with whom they engage are incompatible with core democratic premises.
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India’s Push-and-Pull on Reproductive Rights
For a piece mapping India’s push-and-pull on reproductive rights – the expanse of its protection and the edges it comes up against – history is a good place to start. Rights in the reproductive sphere are relatively new to India. While India enacted a seemingly liberal abortion legislation as early as 1971, concerns about women’s rights were hardly the drivers behind it. Women’s bodies were a means to achieve the State’s end of population control. It is difficult to justify if women were truly seen as rights-holders. Did this change in recent years?
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Mixed Signals for Domestic Climate Law
The climate rulings of the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) are landmark decisions. However, it is not obvious what they mean precisely for the State parties of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Have we witnessed, in Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz, a landslide victory for the activists that will revolutionize domestic climate law? Or do the two other decisions in which the Grand Chamber dismissed the applications preponderate?
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A Non-EU Rule of Law Commission
In March, the European Parliament decided to sue the European Commission over a quid pro quo exchange of European Union funds with Hungary for support of Ukraine EU accession. This lawsuit marks a striking culmination of a years-long failure on the part of the Commission to protect the rule of law. Given frustrating delays from Brussels, this blog post proposes a non-EU accountability mechanism—a so-called Rule of Law Commission—to bolster and reinforce commitments to rule of law issues among European states.
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Homeopathic Globules for Environmental Lawyers
Are courts, as institutions aimed at individual justice, suitable institutions for dealing with the climate crisis? Could they guide the social and global transformation processes that are certainly necessary? Bernhard Wegener takes a clear stand against the “sweet illusion of climate justice“.
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On the Duarte Agostinho Decision
We may not readily describe Duarte Agostinho as a success. But it does offer an excellent opportunity to clarify what we mean by ‘success’ in this context. Arguably, this depends on our expectations – whether that’s to generate attention, trigger mobilization, seek judicial engagement with an issue, clarify the law, or pursue a given outcome, among others.
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In the Dark
There is an old adage in the world of official transparency that “sunlight is the best disinfectant”. But when it comes to Europe’s recovery transformation via the NextGenerationEU (NGEU) programme and related instruments, the Commission insists on conducting as much of it as possible in the dark. As concerns grow about both the effectiveness and even potentially corruption in the use of recovery funds, this lack of transparency is particularly worrying.
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The Fabulous and the Fascist
The last ten years have witnessed the gradual collapse of democracy and constitutionalism in India. Where do LGBT rights figure in all this? I contextualize the wins and the losses and discuss why LGBT rights in India are not “under attack” as they have been under authoritarian governments elsewhere.
Continue reading >>A Rejoinder to Citizenship for Sale (Commission v Malta)
In his piece on Citizenship for Sale of 14 April 2024, Joseph Weiler criticizes the European Commission's infringement procedure against Malta's golden passport scheme. He names three reasons why the Commission should (or could) not have brought the case and the Court should not uphold it. While the present reply does not argue that the Court will necessarily find in the Commission's favour, the Commission's legal claim and strategy do not seem to be as (constitutionally) problematic as Weiler make them out to be.
Continue reading >>GDPR Overreach?
After Meta introduced this model for its social networking services Facebook and Instagram in November 2023, several national data protection authorities called on the EDPB to clarify the compatibility of this model with the GDPR. Data protection law is to be used as a lever to prohibit media companies or online service providers from offering a service that is more data-minimalist than the traditional business model. Data protection authorities are therefore faced with the question of whether the GDPR should address "social justice" concerns.
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Citizenship for Sale (Commission v Malta)
The Maltese “passports for sale” (Golden Passports) was big news a year or two ago but has now disappeared below the radar of public attention. Yet, the mills of justice might grind slowly, but grind they do. The case brought by the Commission against Malta is scheduled to be heard by the CJEU sometime later this year. So, Malta offers passports for sale. Quelle Horreur! I hear you sniffing with disgust and indignation. They sell their citizenship, and hoopla – automatically these new citizens, ipso facto and ipso jure are European Citizens enjoying all the rights and duties which attach to such.
Continue reading >>Hercules or Sisyphus? On the legacy of statutory lawlessness in post-autocratic Poland
A constitutional responsibility.
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Herkules oder Sisyphus? Vom Erbe des gesetzlichen Unrechts im post-autokratischen Polen
Eine verfassungsrechtliche Verantwortung.
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Gender, Equality, and the Predicaments of Faith
In the context of the rise of the global right, feminist debates on gender and sexual rights can and have at times slipped into a left and right ideological divide. In reflecting on the ways in which gender equality has been addressed in the context of Indian constitutional law over the past two decades, what emerges is a more complex picture.
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States’ Extraterritorial Jurisdiction for Climate-Related Impacts
States’ extraterritorial jurisdiction was one of the hot topics decided by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in Duarte Agostinho. Strictly speaking, the “lack of it” led the ECtHR to declare the complaint inadmissible with respect to all defendant States except Portugal. This finding is in line with previous ECtHR case law but highlights a gap in human rights protection and creates a mismatch between the ECtHR’s case law and that of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) and the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC).
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Climate Litigation Reaches Italian Courts
With Giudizio Universale, climate litigation has found its way to Italy. This case has many aspects in common with the general transnational phenomenon, both in terms of the structure and content of the legal arguments used. The case highlights the difficulties that courts face in view of the high social expectations connected to this kind of proceedings.
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The High Representative Strikes Again
In March 2024, the High Representative (HR) in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), Christian Schmidt, once again used his “Bonn powers” under the Dayton Peace Agreement which, inter alia, enable him to impose substantial legislation. After a dark warning, he enacted a new package of reforms concerning the electoral process. While these reforms reflect the necessary and desirable changes in the process of the EU accession, concurrently resolving a political stalemate, this schmidtian mode also creates further political cleavages. Nevertheless, arguably a “Smith” has found a fairly clever way forward.
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Third Provisional Measures in South Africa v Israel
On March 28, 2024, the ICJ issued its third provisional measures order in South Africa v Israel. The Court ordered further, more pointed, measures towards Israel to ensure the provision of humanitarian aid throughout Gaza. In this blog post, I consider that the right to be heard in the course of this third order has not been fully guaranteed since the ICJ based its ruling on the international reports which were not provided, known, and considered by either of the parties. Moreover, I argue that the ICJ underscored its decision on humanitarian law rather than obligations to prevent genocide.
Continue reading >>The Digital Public Square meets the Digital Baton
The value a society and its laws place on protecting free speech is arguably most keenly felt where that speech takes a critical turn. Which is why the history of this field is littered with prosecutions and penalties being levied against problematic speech, inviting courts to draw the lines between what is protected and what is not. The past ten years in India demonstrate that when faced with speech that is critical of government policy or state action, the state has become increasingly hesitant to let it remain on air. What is perhaps most alarming for the health of democracy is that, in most cases, there is often a synergy across the three arms of the State that curbing problematic speech is the best course of action to follow.
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The Meaning of Carbon Budget within a Wide Margin of Appreciation
Although the KlimaSeniorinnen judgment discusses a number of rights of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), including Article 6 (right of access to a court), Article 2 (right to life), and Article 13 (right to an effective remedy), the focus of this blog post is on its discussion of Article 8 (right to private, home and family life). The question raised by that discussion is whether the judgment is one that will “frighten the horses” and lead to oppositional cries of judicial overreach around the separation of powers, or if it is more an unexceptional case of “move on, nothing to see here.” My argument is that the judgment is mostly the latter but that it has what, in computer gaming terms, is known as an “Easter egg” – a hidden element included by the developers to surprise and reward those who look carefully. That could turn out to be more controversial.
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Catalysts of Eco-Constitutional Evolution
On a lawsuit brought forth by a women’s association of the indigenous Kukama people. The association sought recognition of the intrinsic rights of the Marañón River. The judgement is part of a broader constitutional trend towards recognizing nature’s own rights. This movement is notably being driven by Latin American nations where indigenous perspectives on nature emphasize the intrinsic link between a healthy environment and the realization of human rights, thereby softening the adversarial stance between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. As such, this jurisprudence may serve as catalyst for the ecological constitutional evolution of Western legal systems.
Continue reading >>Subordination and Arbitrariness in Citizenship Law
In 2019, the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party returned to power in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party oversaw the enactment of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019 (‘CAA’) which gave Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi and Christian (but not Muslim) migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan a fast-tracked pathway to Indian citizenship. This post argues that the CAA is unconstitutional, and uses it as an example to clarify two important under-theorised Indian constitutional principles: anti-subordination and arbitrariness.
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Enforcement of the Digital Markets Act
Since March 2024, the undertakings Alphabet/Google, Amazon, Apple, Byte-Dance/TikTok, Meta, and Microsoft must comply with the obligations of the Digital Markets Act (DMA). Within the first month after the 6-months implementation period has ended, the European Commission opened investigations against Alphabet/Google, Apple, and Meta for non-compliance with the obligations in the DMA. All proceedings can be traced back to related competition law cases. However, only two proceedings follow the same reasoning as their competition law role models, while the case against Meta reveals that the approaches under the DMA can and will deviate significantly to those under competition law and data protection law.
Continue reading >>Historic and Unprecedented
The three much-awaited judgments rendered by the European Court of Human Rights on 9 April 2024 are truly historic and unprecedented. In Verein Klimaseniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland, the Grand Chamber established that climate change is 'one of the most pressing issues of our times' and poses a threat to human rights. With this ruling, the Court confirmed that States have a positive obligation to adopt measures to mitigate climate change under Article 8 ECHR, the right to family and private life. The judgments will undeniably set the tone for climate litigation in the years to come. It will impact both litigation and other procedures before other international courts.
Continue reading >>The Transformation of European Climate Change Litigation
In a transformative moment for European and global climate litigation, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) ruled today that the state has a positive duty to adopt, and effectively implement in practice, regulations and measures capable of mitigating the existing and potentially irreversible future effects of climate change. In Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland (“KlimaSeniorinnen”), the Court held that by failing to put in place a domestic regulatory framework for climate change mitigation, the Swiss government violated Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), the right to respect for private and family life. The judgment is a milestone for human rights protection.
Continue reading >>Paternalistische Freiwilligkeit
Nachdem das Digitalunternehmen Meta ein sog. „Pay-or-Consent“-Modell im November 2023 für seinen sozialen Netzwerkdienst Facebook eingeführt hatte, riefen mehrere staatliche Datenschutzbehörden den EDPB an, um die Vereinbarkeit dieses Modells mit der DSGVO zu klären. In einer grotesken Volte soll das Datenschutzrecht als Hebel dienen, Medienunternehmen oder großen Netzwerkbetreibern das Angebot einer Leistung zu untersagen, die datenminimalistischer ist als das überkommene Geschäftsmodell. Die Datenschutzbehörden stehen damit vor der Frage, ob die Interpretation der DSGVO einen „social justice turn“ vollziehen soll und Anliegen sozialer Gerechtigkeit zum Schutzzweck gemacht werden können.
Continue reading >>Amending the Constitution Without Deliberation
India is undergoing a “deliberation backsliding”. Since the current government was elected to office in 2019, only 13% of all government bills introduced in Parliament were referred to Parliament Committees for detailed study, scrutiny and stakeholder consultations. While the deliberation deficit is concerning with respect to ordinary government bills, it becomes alarming with respect to bills which seek to amend the Indian Constitution. In this blog post, I argue that the promise of deliberative democracy in India is coming undone, which sets back the project of constitutionalism in India.
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To Define Is Just to Define
Social media allows users to share content worldwide. This also enables users to distribute illegal content. The laws of the EU Member States vary greatly when it comes to what content they consider to be illegal, especially regarding hate speech. Thus, it is important which national law applies in cross-border cases concerning online content. Ultimately, this question is closely linked to the broader reshuffling of power in the digital sphere: will it be actual ‘law’ that platforms enforce online or norms made by platforms themselves? So far, the law of 27 Member States plus the EU itself remains utterly chaotic compared to the more uniform Terms of Service (ToS) of the internet giants.
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Ecuador’s Embassy Raid
The Mexican government broke diplomatic ties with Ecuador after the Mexican Embassy in Quito was raided on April 6, 2024, to detain Ecuador’s ex-vice-president Jorge Glas, convicted of bribery and organized crime. Both governments are facing significant stakes: Ecuador must ensure that a high-profile crime does not go unpunished, while Mexico is obligated to uphold international law and offer international protection for Jorge Glas.
Continue reading >>Reimagining Indian Federalism
As India’s new dominant party system coalesced after 2014, the country entered a phase of centralisation. India has always had federalism with a strong centre, but from the late 1980s to the mid-2010s, political and economic regionalism and national coalition governments encompassing national and regional parties produced an appearance of deepening federalisation. Since 2014, when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) became the first party in over 25 years to win an outright parliamentary majority, the twin pillars of political centralisation under a dominant party system and economic concentration, have once again drawn attention to the contested nature of India’s federal contract.
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Anna Julia Cooper
Dr. Anna Julia Cooper was born into slavery at a time, when the 1831 Act prohibited the teaching of literacy to enslaved people in North Carolina in order to prevent rebellion and emancipation. Despite this, she was the fourth (known) Black female Ph.D. and the first African American woman to receive a doctorade from the Sorbonne University. She is still considered a mother of Black feminism and a formidable writer, activist, and educator.
Continue reading >>Why Party Bans Often Don’t Work
In July 2008, in an intensely debated and enormously consequential case, Turkey’s Constitutional Court weighed whether to close the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and ban its 71 leading members, including then-Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Six of the eleven justices voted in favor – falling just one vote short of the super-majority required to dissolve the AKP and bar its leaders from politics for five years. More than 15 years after the AKP closure case, Turkey has experienced significant democratic backsliding, and Erdoğan has secured a third term as president, extending his tenure in office into 2028. Although the tools of “militant democracy” may be useful, the Turkish case suggests that targeted legal interventions, rather than sweeping party bans, may be more effective at safeguarding democracy.
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Gewalt durch Sitzblockaden
Sitzblockaden der „Letzten Generation“ bewerten deutsche Gerichte als Nötigung durch Gewalt. Ich halte dies für vereinbar mit dem Begriff „Gewalt“, den § 240 Strafgesetzbuch enthält. Gewalt bedeutet nicht zwingend Aktivität – maßgeblich ist, ob körperlich wirkende Macht über eine andere Person ausgeübt wird. Damit wende ich mich gegen den kürzlich erschienenen Beitrag von Siegmar Lengauer, der aus österreichischer Perspektive ungläubig auf die deutsche Rechtsprechung zum Gewaltbegriff blickt und diese ablehnt.
Continue reading >>Civil Society and its Engagement with the Constitution
The Indian Constitution is as much a culmination of the ideas of the freedom movement against colonial powers as it is of the achievement of a social revolution through law. Our Constitution, which was inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, thus, not only provided for political freedom from foreign rule and established a democratic republic, but it also provided a road map to undo the deeply entrenched hierarchies, inequalities, and social exclusions in our society and therefore for a social transformation. Much of the civil society interventions of the last seven decades have been to work for redeeming the promise of the constitution inside and outside courts.
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Indian Constitutionalism in the Last Decade
Having been governed by Narendra Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for the last ten years, India will hold elections in the following weeks. We use this moment as an opportunity to reflect upon the last decade and assess how the Hindu nationalists have impacted Indian constitutionalism. To do so, we have asked legal scholars and practitioners to reflect upon the developments in particular areas of Indian constitutional law over the last decade. This blog post will provide an introduction to the symposium.
Continue reading >>Argentiniens gefährliches Experiment
Improvisation, Unvernunft und provokante Grausamkeit.
Continue reading >>Argentina’s Dangerous Experiment
Improvisation, Irrationality, and Provocative Cruelty.
Continue reading >>Still Alive?
Party banning was developed in Spain in 2002, with the aim of combating the terrorism of ETA (1958-2018), an extreme left-wing and separatist Basque organisation that murdered more than 800 people. This instrument proved useful in defeating the terrorist group and its network of support organisations, including several parties. Today, there are strong separatist or pro-independence movements in Catalonia, the Basque Country and, to a lesser extent, Galicia, and other regions. Faced with this, there are parties that have proposed using the mechanism of banning parties. But is this viable, and would it be useful?
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European Democracy at Stake in Battle of the EP versus Orbán
Shortly after the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, the European Parliament expressed its concern about the rule of law in Hungary. 14 years later, the EP still, and yet again, discusses PM Orbán’s lack of respect for the values of the Union. The forthcoming debate on 10 April will be the Parliament’s last chance to prevent the scheduled takeover of the Council-Presidency by Hungary. The EP and the European Council must prevent a self-proclaimed illiberal leader from assuming the Presidency of the Council and thus protect the democratic nature of the European Union.
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Access and Benefit-Sharing Isn’t Equity
It is unsurprising that equity has featured so prominently in the Pandemic Treaty negotiations – the Treaty is a direct response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which was characterised by gross inequality between high-income and LMICs. For all the talk at the start of the Treaty negotiation process of equity, of doing things differently in the future, it appears that very little will change. If it works, and there are very good reasons to believe that it will not work, it will at best make sure that a small proportion of vaccines end up where they need to be, and the rest will continue to go to the highest bidder, regardless of need, equity, or justice.
Continue reading >>Die Verfassung der Sanktionspolitik
Das Magazin MONITOR berichtet in einem Beitrag von heute, wie diverse deutsche Firmen legale, also nicht-sanktionierte Korridore in den Russland-Sanktionen nutzen, um so Regionen wie Mariupol (unter übrigens enormen sanktionsrechtlichen und völkerrechtlichen Risiken) mit wichtigen Baustoffen zu beliefern oder beliefern zu lassen. In den sozialen Medien und unter Politikern ist sehr schnell, nämlich noch vor der eigentlichen Ausstrahlung der MONITOR-Sendung am heutigen Donnerstag, breite Empörung darüber entstanden, dass hier offenbar eines der wichtigsten Kriegsziele Russlands im wahrsten Sinne des Wortes mit deutscher Hilfe zementiert wird. Die massive Empörung über die Geschäfte ist nachvollziehbar, die allgemeine Verwunderung darüber, dass hier offenbar eine Sanktionslücke klafft, nicht.
Continue reading >>A Limping Militant Democracy
Images of hundreds of men gathering outside the former headquarters of the Italian post-fascist party (Movimento Sociale Italiano – MSI), giving the Roman salute in Acca Larentia (Roma) on the 8th of January 2024, have sparked numerous controversies in Italy. The Roman salute was paired with the Fascist ritual of the “roll call”, whereby a leader calls out the name of a fallen soldier and his comrades shout “presente!”. While one would expect the President of the Senate, facing an incident that stirred political controversy, to reason in more institutional terms rather than strictly legally, La Russa was partially correct in stating that the current Italian legal framework is (still) not sufficiently clear and coherent on the matter.
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Strengthening the Resilience of the Rule of Law through Democracy
For almost a decade now, the European Union (EU) has been struggling with the erosion of the rule of law in some of its Member States. The IEP explored the various pillars of the rule of law resilience, culminating in the recent RESILIO report. Unsurprisingly, the independent judiciary and effective public administration prove to be key for the functioning of the rule of law. To remain resilient, the rule of law needs a solid democratic political culture anchored in a robust civil society, independent media, and a sound public debate. Henceforth, a long-term investment in democracy is the best way to strengthen the resilience of the rule of law.
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To Bind or Not to Bind
While the majority of the contributions to this blog symposium tackle issues of global justice, distributive justice and the impact of a decolonial perspective on global health law, our approach might seem to stand out at first sight: Our contribution is interested in the legal form the new Pandemic Agreement will take. Attention to the formal dimension of the reform process might seem remote from the substantive issues of the other contributions. However, we would like to argue in this short piece that the decision for a certain legal architecture can very well have repercussions on the question to what extent the new instrument can deliver on its promise to pursue equity and hence to arguably overcome divisions still entrenched in the international community.
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Advancing Equality in the Enjoyment of the Right to Health
States parties to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination must improve their public health systems by measurably advancing racial equality in law and in practice. As the world moves forward in understanding the structural dimension of racial discrimination in all areas of life, the General Recommendation No. 37 on racial discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to health can serve as a quasi-global instrument towards a more equitable and inclusive landscape for the realization of the right to health for all.
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The Silent Victim of Israel’s War on Gaza
In March 2024, Forensic Architecture reported that more than 2,000 agricultural sites, including farms and greenhouses, have been destroyed in Gaza since October 2023. Almost six months into Israel’s war on Gaza, evidence indicates the devastating impacts of the war on the natural environment in Gaza. In particular, it has been reported that farms have been devastated, and nearly half of the trees in Gaza were razed. While this raises numerous issues, the question of whether Israel’s large-scale airstrikes on Gaza would make a substantial contribution to serious violations of international humanitarian law (IHL) protecting the natural environment during armed conflicts, deserves more thought than it gets.
Continue reading >>The Spitzenkandidaten Practice in the Spotlight
Ten years have lapsed since the first successful attempt to launch the Spitzenkandidaten practice in 2014. With the European political parties midway through selecting their lead candidates once again, the upcoming European elections raise questions about the constitutional nature of this informal practice. The following comment aims to enquire what consequences, given the evolving dynamics of the practice, can be attached to a potential failure to designate a Spitzenkandidat. In particular, I argue that only if the SK process evolves into a constitutional customary rule, it is possible to conceive a duty upon the European Council to consider appointing the leading candidate from the party winning the elections of the European Parliament.
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Transnational Solidarity and the Global Health System
The coronavirus pandemic has once again shown that scarcity and distribution are political problems. It is only through distribution that resources, finite in principle, are separated into scarce and non-scarce goods. So how can this unfair distribution of resources be countered?
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Apartheid in the Occupied Palestinian Territory?
The apartheid claim made against Israel because of its policy in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT) – most recently in the ongoing advisory proceedings before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) – cannot be settled with the counter-claim of antisemitism, but calls for an objective, thorough and fact-based legal inquiry. Only such an approach with regard to this and other allegations against Israeli policy will strengthen Israel, understood as a liberal and democratic Rechtsstaat, which guarantees, in line with its 1948 Declaration of Independence, “complete equality” to “all its inhabitants”.
Continue reading >>Colonialism, Criminal Law, and the Dustbin of History
In a ruling that is important beyond Kenya, the Kenyan High Court has delivered a milestone judgment. By striking down a provision of the Kenyan Criminal Code on subversion, the Court takes a significant step towards further doing away with the colonial legacy in the Kenyan legal system. The judgment exemplifies how judges in postcolonial contexts interpret the law against the backdrop of the country’s history.
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Refoulement As A Crime
Last month, the Italian Court of Cassation upheld the (suspended) sentence of one year’s imprisonment of the shipmaster of the Italian ship Asso28. He was convicted of two offences of abandonment for returning and handing around 100 migrants over to the personnel of a Libyan patrol boat, including some unaccompanied minors and pregnant women, whom he had previously rescued in international waters within the Libyan SAR zone. The case constitutes the first time an individual was held criminally responsible for failing to fulfil the duty of non-refoulement. Until recently, the refoulement duty has only served to exclude the liability of shipmasters who had complied with it whenever they were accused of facilitating irregular immigration. This case indicates the emergence of a new function of the principle, namely that of grounding the criminal liability of those who violate it.
Continue reading >>Moderation Made in Europe
The EU’s Digital Services Act (DSA) has been fully applicable for a little more than a month now. The conditions are thus in place for the emergence of the out-of-court dispute settlement (ODS) ecosystem envisaged in Article 21 DSA, arguably the DSA’s most original contribution to securing digital platform users’ rights. In this post, we try to envision the shape such an ecosystem might take over the next few years in the key area of social media content moderation (SMCM). We argue that the DSA may create an adjudication system dominated by a few ODS providers backed by public-private partnerships and ready to work in concert with the complaint-handling mechanisms set up by the platforms themselves.
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Between Legal Deficiencies and Political Restraint
Traditionally, it is Germany, not France, which is presented as the model example of militant democracy. Among the various provisions of the German Basic Law, Article 21 (2), setting out the procedure for banning political parties, is perhaps one of the clearest expressions of the basic constitutional decision in favour of a streitbare Demokratie. Nevertheless, setting concepts aside and examining empirical data, it is interesting to note that Germany has banned fewer political parties than France since the end of the Second World War.
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Decolonization Through Decolonial Reforming
Many stakeholders agree that the WHO has not been able to adequately address the political and social problems, global health emergencies triggered or exacerbated by epidemics and pandemics, malnutrition, and access to clean water in recent years. Against this backdrop, there is a widespread call for more equity and solidarity in the global health system. Most of the proposals concerning the reform of the WHO deal with the possible goals and outcomes of such a reform. However, it is just as important to consider how such a reform should be carried out so that the ambitious goals are not compromised by the implementation process itself.
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One Health – One Welfare – One Rights
The projected WHO Pandemic Agreement, as currently under negotiation, will most likely contain a detailed prescription of a One Health approach (Art. 1(d) and Art. 5 of the INB negotiating text of 30 October 2023). This contribution examines the legal potential of a One Health approach for laws and policies towards animals raised, kept, and slaughtered for providing meat, milk, fur, and other body products for human consumption. My main argument will be that, taken seriously, the idea of One health defies a hierarchy between the health of humans, animals, and ecosystems. The inner logic of One Health is to exploit the positive feedback loops between safeguarding human, animal, and ecosystem health. This approach should modify the still prevailing unreflected and unchecked prioritisation of measures in favour of human health at the expense of and to the detriment of animal health and life. I will illustrate my claim with two policy examples.
Continue reading >>As Good as It Gets
Contrasting the constitutional limitations on the freedom to establish political parties in Italy and Germany brings out two quite different conceptions of militant democracy: one is particularistic, retrospective, and provisional – preoccupied with the transition to democracy; the other is universalistic, prospective, and enduring – concerned with the degeneration of democracy. The Portuguese Constitution, true to its eclectic character and multiple influences, steers a seemingly middle course between these polar options.
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The Future of Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing under International Law
The sharing of pathogen samples and their associated genetic sequence data (GSD) is crucial for global pandemic prevention, preparedness and response. It enables global surveillance, risk assessment and the research and development of pandemic-related products. The sharing of related benefits is also seen as key to ensuring more equitable global access to the fruits of science. These issues, collectively known as Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS), remain a major point of contention in the ongoing Pandemic Agreement negotiations. In this post, I explore potential scenarios regarding the establishment or absence of the new PABS System, and their implications under international law.
Continue reading >>A Supremely Complex Decision
On March 28, 2024, a majority decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in Dickson v. Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation held that Canada’s constitutional bill of rights, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (“the Charter”), applied against an Indigenous government’s residency requirements for election to the government’s Council. However, the majority also held that a section of the Charter that offers some protective effect for Indigenous governments would protect this residency requirement from a challenge under the Charter. The case reaches significant determinations but with some messy splits amongst the seven justices who sat on the case.
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The Kovačević Case Revisited
On 20 March 2023 the Council of the European Union gave Bosnia and Hercegovina green light to start accession negotiations. However, despite this political endorsement, BiH must fulfill the conditionality criteria, including a series of six judgments by the ECtHR relating to the predetermined ethnic keys. The last case, Kovačević v. BiH, was referred to the Grand Chamber in December 2023. If the Court follows its previous case law, this should force the mono-ethnic political parties and their leaders as well as the EU institutions to insist on de-blocking the constitutional impasse for any realistic steps towards European integration.
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Power and Distribution in Global Health Governance
Since at least the 1980s, private actors and market-based mechanisms have played an increasingly important role in the provision of public goods and services and the pursuit of public policy objectives in general. A market approach is also widely used in the field of public health. In effect, the PPP approach, as illustrated by COVAX, can work to structurally protect the interests of (a majority) of the high-income countries. While PPPs in global health may do a lot of good things, their private law, contractualist nature and structures safeguard formal state sovereignty and voluntarism, predominantly benefitting high-income donor countries
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Beyond the Blocs
On Monday, 25 March, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution demanding a ceasefire in Gaza and the immediate release of hostages, as well as emphasizing the need to increase the provision and distribution of humanitarian aid. The Resolution was adopted 14-0, with the United States the only member to abstain. As the Security Council website announces, this Resolution ended a “months-long deadlock”. The recent Resolution is not perceived by Israeli actors as binding. And yet, I argue that the fact that the US and Russia are now essentially voting together on the need to end this war could lead to significant further ramifications that may shape the region and beyond.
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Closing the Accountability Gap
In their latest ‘WHO transformation’ (which began in 2017), the WHO hired at least six consulting firms, praised by the Director-General as the ‘best firms in the world’. Despite their prominent role in WHO processes and reform efforts, there is a clear accountability gap in their role at WHO. Consultant engagement contributes to a trend towards informal governance and public-private collusions in an organization that looks less and less like a public authority.
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Rejecting Lip Service or Validating 1930s Family Values?
On 8th March 2024, the Irish people rejected two separate constitutional referendums on family and care in an overwhelming no vote. These amendments aimed to update a conservative and gendered ideal of family found in Article 41. The family and care referendums involved more abstract statements of directive constitutional values. The result of the referendums is a win for voter confusion, anger towards the government and the NoNo campaign. It is also a loss for political constitutionalism.
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The Silent Disintegration of Global Health Governance?
With an estimated 6,9 million deaths and with its enormous scale of economic, social and political collateral damages, the COVID-19 Pandemic has created excessive momentum for re-considering the rules and procedures governing global health – or has it? In this blog contribution, I will discuss the promises and pitfalls of current law-making and law-amending efforts that seek to strengthen pandemic governance post COVID-19 by reflecting on three distinct features of global health as an area of international cooperation.
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Towards Equity and Decolonization?
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed systemic problems in the global health system. It revealed that the global health system perpetuates global health inequalities rather than effectively reducing them: The international community, particularly the countries of the Global North, failed to make COVID-19 vaccines widely available to the populations of the world's poorest countries. This blog debate takes stock of the reform debate about a just and decolonizing transformation of the health system. Bringing together scholars from various disciplines, the contributions of this debate ask what a fair global health system could look like and what role the law plays in it.
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Zwischen Fluss, Meer und Strafbefehl
Macht sich strafbar, wer den Satz „from the river to the sea, Palestine will be free“ verwendet? In aller Regel nicht. Der Slogan ist vieldeutig und Gerichte müssen bei mehreren Deutungsmöglichkeiten wegen der Meinungsfreiheit genau begründen, warum allein die strafbare Interpretation plausibel sein soll. Er kennzeichnet auch nicht die Hamas, denn verschiedene Akteure verwenden ihn seit Jahrzenten bis heute.
Continue reading >>Why Today’s UN Security Council Resolution Demanding an Immediate Ceasefire Is Legally Binding
Today, the Security Council adopted a resolution calling for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza during Ramadan as a first step to a “lasting sustainable ceasefire”. This comes after a months-long impasse and a total of five vetoes on the matter. The resolution is – despite statements to the contrary – legally binding and creates a legally binding request for an immediate ceasefire during Ramadan and a legally binding request to immediately release all hostages.
Continue reading >>Silence is Golden, but not Mandatory
Last week, European Commissioner Breton received a slap on the wrist from the commission’s officials. After he (politically unwise) criticized the process of electing Ursula von der Leyen as the EPP’s leading candidate on X (formally Twitter), the Commission’s Secretary General did not mince his words in reminding him of his obligations under EU law and the potential sanctions for violating them. In this post, I argue that one cannot construe the duties of the Members of the Commission as a prohibition of political expressions of any kind.
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Inquiring into the Technicalities of EU Law
It may sound trivial, but I argue that the technicalities of EU law have been neglected and that an in-depth inquiry is lacking. To see why such an inquiry might be interesting, we must go beyond the traditional understanding of legal technicalities and see them as protagonists in their own right. We need to focus on lawyers’ knowledge practices and to inquire into the transformative power of legal technicalities.
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A Critical Assessment of How We ‘Speak’ EU Law
Although EU law touches on several profound and complex ontologies of ways of living and being in the European polity, these meanings are usually not reflected in how lawyers and legal scholars ‘speak’ EU law. The reason for this is that EU law is formulated in a strikingly abstract and univocal way, leaving little room for an in-depth consideration of the different interpretations of the law by reference to the various values and conceptions of the individual and social institutions that it underlies.
Continue reading >>The Janus-Faced Culture of EU Law
Can there be a cultural study of EU law? The notion of legal culture is notoriously tricky. It is both omnipresent and yet seemingly ungraspable. Can we nevertheless hope to dispel the mystery of legal culture, and seize this notion as an object of study? And can it provide a method to improve our understanding of EU law?
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Daniela Klette und die Frucht der vergifteten Maschine
Am 26. Februar 2024 hat die Polizei die mutmaßliche Terroristin Daniela Klette festgenommen. PimEyes, eine KI-basierte, biometrische Gesichtserkennungssoftware, hatte Klette im Netz gefunden. Dieser Beitrag plädiert aus verfassungs- und unionsrechtlicher Perspektive dafür, dass der Einsatz von offensichtlich rechtswidriger Software wie PimEyes im Strafprozess ein Beweisverwertungsverbot begründet, das auch eine Fernwirkung entfaltet.
Continue reading >>Polish(ing) Broken Tribunal
Resetting the Constitutional Tribunal in Poland after the Law and Justice Party's eight years in power is a Herculean task. However, the constitutional and political room for maneuver for the new government turns out to be quite limited.
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PimEyes User auf den Spuren der RAF
Ende Februar hat die Polizei die mutmaßliche RAF-Terroristin Daniela Klette in Berlin festgenommen. Dies haben Hinweise ermöglicht, an die ein Journalist mittels der Gesichtserkennungssoftware PimEyes gelangt war – allerdings unter Verstoß gegen das Datenschutzrecht. Dass die Polizei die Hinweise verwendet, ist verfassungsrechtlich problematisch, denn sie selbst dürfte PimEyes nicht einsetzen. Dies hindert die Polizei aber nicht daran, aufgrund von Hinweisen durch Private, die PimEyes generiert hat, gegen bestehende Gefahren einzuschreiten und auch nicht daran, strafprozessuale Ermittlungen aufzunehmen.
Continue reading >>How to Avoid Another Botched EU Enlargement by Sticking to the Rules
Is the European Union once again about to duck the challenge of constitutional reform? Even the imperative of Ukraine’s accession does not impel the EU to strengthen its governance. The European Parliament has made formal proposals to change the treaty from unanimity to QMV. The Commission equivocates. The European Council simply sits on the dossier, looking for excuse after excuse. Worse, a new idea is being floated in Brussels that mixes bad law with bad politics. The ruse is to use Article 49 TEU, the accession clause, instead of Article 48. I explain here why this approach will neither help Ukraine nor salvage the Union’s self-respect.
Continue reading >>Studying Migrations and Borders from a Pluridisciplinary Perspective
I chose for years to consider migrations and borders from a pluridisciplinary perspective. Such a pluridisciplinary approach reveals to be demanding: it needs both to be developed with discipline, and to be opened to wanderings. You have to accept to be confronted with personal controversies, to be faced with internal discourse on the method.
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Europe’s Judicial Narratives
Through the representations of Europe that it conjures up and conveys, the European Court of Justice significantly influences the EU’s self-perceived identity. In that sense, it contributes to the shaping of a European polity, i.e. a European political community united by shared representations about its history and identity.
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The Triumph of EU Law in Context?
Whereas law-in-context analyses of Community law were relatively rare in the early 1990s, they seemed to flourish from that point onwards. Unsurprisingly, even “mainstream” journals, such as the Common Market Law Review, now strive to attract pieces that combine legal analysis with social, political or economic insights. Does that mean that we are all “contextualists” now? Not in my view.
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Gender as a Trade Concern
The African continent is currently witnessing the creation of the largest regional free trade area in the world. The African Continental Free Trade Area represents a significant milestone in Africa’s socio-economic development. However, this development is also significant in another respect: A recently adopted special Protocol on Women and Youth in Trade has the potential to blaze the trail for gender-transformative intra-African trade. The protocol thus confirms a general trend in international economic law to acknowledge and address the gendered nature of trade.
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Colonialism and EU Law
In 1957, when the Treaty of Rome was signed and founded what later became the European Union (EU), four out of six of the original Member States were colonial powers. An important methodological question for EU law research is how this historical fact has affected the development of EU law. I argue that answering the question of how Europe’s centuries long history of colonialism has shaped EU law is not just a historical exercise but also a starting point for an examination of EU law of today.
Continue reading >>For a Postcolonial reading of the EU
The use of the terms 'decolonial', 'postcolonial' and 'race' has become fashionable, particularly in Anglo-American legal scholarship. However few legal scholars in recent years have ventured into postcolonial approaches to European Union law. I will argue that one cannot understand the history and law of the European Union if one fails to understand and acknowledge colonialism.
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The Spanish Amnesty, the Conflict with Catalonia, and the Rule of Law
The Spanish amnesty for the Catalan independence movement is a victory for the rule of law, rather than a defeat. It is not an exemption from punishment otherwise due, but instead a reflection of the fact that the acts now amnestied should never have been subject to criminal prosecution in the first place. It is thus also a way for Spain to return to compliance with its obligations under European and international human rights law.
Continue reading >>EU Law Through the State Lens
The conceptual apparatus that frames our knowledge of EU administrative law today has its origins in the legal scholarship that established a new field in the turn of the 1980s and during the 1990s. This scholarly field owes much of its uncontested existence to a series of major handbooks, which systematized materials that hitherto had been sparse and scattered, first in German, then in English and later still in French. Revisiting the past may provide some clues as to the role legal scholars can and should have in a period in which we may be witnessing an epochal transition in Europe.
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Establishing Law in Context
Law in Context (LIC) was a revolution in EU law studies. It began in the 1980s and ‘90s and its effects continue today. This blogpost sketches selected basic landmarks. Inevitably it is a personal perspective, because if the short history of LIC shows anything, it is that there are almost as many views of ‘context’ as there are LIC scholars. To fully understand the LIC movement, it is essential to consider it in context; furthermore, despite changes in context, LIC remains pertinent today.
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The Fall of The Great Paywall for EU Harmonised Standards
In case C-588/21 P, the CJEU dismantled a foundational axiom of the European Standardisation System: the paywall of harmonised standards. The Court confirmed that harmonised standards are an integral part of EU law, mandating their free accessibility. In this commentary, I posit that the Court’s decision imposes a proactive publication obligation and challenges the existing copyright protection afforded to harmonised standards.
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EU Law and Legal Theory
European law is a very strange creature. It is something that has been created, produced, mostly by jurisprudence and doctrine, and this makes European law especially challenging and interesting for scholars, because it has been, in many respects, a product of scholars. How should we approach the study of European law? How could we approach in a sensible way the study of European law?
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Reconnecting EU Legal Studies to European Societies
EU legal studies suffer from a disconnect with social reality. If we need a method, it is one that allows us to reconnect with European societies as a bustle of unsettled forms of life, from both an existential and social perspective. Departing from classic institutional and constitutional approaches to EU law, while endorsing the critical turn in the EU legal studies, I will argue in favour of a new “anti-transcendental” perspective.
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FIFA Transfer System Rules in front of the Court
The governance of professional football is facing turbulent times. After three verdicts on 21 December 2023 (ESL, RAFC and ISU), the next case potentially sanctioning football governance is already well underway. In the pending Diarra case (C-650/22), the validity of the FIFA transfer system is at stake. Transfers are among the bread and butter of daily football practice. Any flaw in the transfer system will affect the whole industry. This blog post explores Diarra from a competition law perspective.
Continue reading >>Becoming a (Critical) EU Law Scholar Today
Turning the existential crisis of Europe into critical knowledge, called for by Loïc Azoulai, requires – among other things – critical scholars. The question is, however, whether the present conditions allow for such people to emerge. I discuss only four of the many obstacles that critical scholarship faces today and conclude with a call for something that might be called “critical scholarship about legal scholarship”.
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Controversies over Methods in EU Law
Methodological issues pervade contemporary debates in EU law. There are many reasons for this. Some are specific to the subject matter of EU law itself. The multiple crises that the European Union is experiencing lead EU law scholars to question their classical conception of EU law: a law of integration that should more or less naturally lead to a constitutional or federal order. These crises may also lead scholars to question their relationship with the European institutions, which have been central to the development of the core concepts of EU law and of EU law as a disciplinary field.
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Tort Law and New Zealand’s Corporate Greenhouse Gas Emissions
In February 2024, the New Zealand Supreme Court overturned the previous strike outs in the case of Michael John Smith in tort against seven major New Zealand companies in the dairy, energy, steel, mining and infrastructure sectors. Smith asserts that the respondents are engaging in conduct that affects him and others, and has put them into legal connection with one another in ways that enable appropriate remedy. This is heartland common law territory. Even though the climate change problems we are now grappling with may be new ones, the centuries-old practices and traditions of the common law are a part of New Zealand’s constitutional heritage and structure. Litigation is a legitimate vehicle for members of the population to engage the law in the face of harm or threats to individuals’ rights and well-being.
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Der Geist von Moria
Wie das mytilinische Strafgericht das Verfahren gegen die Moria 4 in der zweiten Instanz handhabt.
Continue reading >>The Ghost of Moria
How the Mytilene criminal court deals with the case against the Moria 4 in the court of second instance.
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The Sovereign Protection Office as the Tip of the Iceberg
In December 2023, the Hungarian Parliament passed a law establishing a Sovereign Protection Office—a state administration which now possesses unfettered access to personal data to find and sanction supposed foreign agents among the Hungarian populace. This office operates at will and without oversight, offers no avenue for legal redress, and wields prison time upwards of three years. In recent weeks, the European Commission launched an infringement proceeding over the law, and the European Parliament called on the European Council to consider Article 7(2) procedures.
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Judging Nicaragua’s Public Interest Litigation in The Hague
The judicialisation of Israel’s war in Gaza has taken a significant turn, with Nicaragua boldly entering the scene and executing two distinct actions. This post contributes to understanding Nicaragua’s two moves before the ICJ by analysing three dimensions. First, the country’s rich relationship with the Court. Second, the prioritisation of political impact and visibility over adjudicative success. Finally, the normative assessments concerning Nicaragua’s moral standing and intentions.
Continue reading >>Brazilian Judges Regulate Elections … and AI
Brazil has new regulations on AI and election interference. Also, in Brazil, the judiciary oversees elections. As municipal elections are coming up, we face a quite unique situation of technological challenges, untested laws, and unusual institutional arrangements. Although innovative, these regulations are constrained in their effectiveness and indifference to broader regulatory debates concerning the regulation of AI, showcasing an uncomfortable relationship between judicial and legislative powers regarding digital policy in Brazil. Disregarding the complexity of AI, the regulations legitimise the expansion of the judicial branch's power to deal with digital threats to democracy while not fully engaging with how these threats materialise through the development and use of AI.
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Reconceptualizing Legislative Privileges
Earlier this month, the Indian Supreme Court delivered a judgment in a reference pertaining to the law and scope of legislative privileges under the Indian Constitution. The primary question before the court was whether legislative privileges extend to the protection from prosecution of a legislator who receives a bribe to speak or vote in a certain manner in the legislature. In the following sections of this post, I’ll first discuss the existing law on legislative privileges in India, which is unique in its origination and formulation. I’ll then argue that there is a need to reconceptualize the understanding of legislative privileges in order to support the legislative systems in performing their roles and functions in their true essence.
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Shortcomings of the AI Act
After the much-awaited vote of the 13th March 2024 by the European Parliament, it is time to begin evaluating the state of fundamental rights in light of the AI Act. In this blog post, three areas of potential inconsistencies and risks are examined: differentiation of provider and deployer, biometrics used in real-time and post-factum, and the standards of biometric recognition in the areas of immigration.
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CILFIT in Strasbourg
On 19 February 2024, the European Court of Human Rights decided not to answer the Estonian Supreme Court’s request for an advisory opinion on the basis of Protocol 16 (P16). For the first time, it dismissed a request because it did not concern a question of principle concerning the interpretation and application of ECHR rights. The decision is significant because the ECtHR provides clear contours as to what types of questions courts should (not) ask.
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Privileges Constrained
Last week, the Indian Supreme Court delivered its judgment in Sita Soren v. Union of India, holding that parliamentary privilege – the constitutionally recognized legal immunity of legislators – does not extend to bribe-taking for exercising their legislative vote or speech a certain way. In this blog post, I discuss the Court’s formulation of the essentiality test, as well as its conclusions on the availability of privilege for bribe-taking. I argue that while the ruling can strengthen democratic institutions since it protects the integrity of legislative processes, certain risks in the essentiality test’s composition – which risk depriving important legislative functions of privilege – must be addressed.
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What is Living and What is Dead in the Turkish Parliament?
On January 30th, 2024, the Turkish Parliament officially revoked the mandate of Can Atalay, an opposition MP representing the earthquake-affected city of Hatay. Atalay's incident, from its inception to the recent parliamentary drama, not only exposes the diminished authority of the Constitutional Court but also exemplifies the tacit cooperation among the regime's loyal officers—judges, MPs, or civil servants. In this subtle network, the Parliament occupies a peculiar place with its distinct symbolism, serving as a fig leaf for authoritarian politics.
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Conspicuously Absent
Nicaragua alleges that Germany violates the Genocide Convention and international humanitarian law by assisting Israel and also by failing to prevent violations of these bodies of law. It requests the International Court of Justice to indicate provisional measures, which would oblige Germany inter alia to stop assisting Israel. While the Court may be barred from exercising its jurisdiction over Nicaragua’s claims relating to the Genocide Convention it may be able to hear the claims regarding Germany’s duties under IHL.
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Why Courts will not Stop Global Warming, but Climate Litigation is Still Useful
Despite the global trend of record temperatures and the increasing number of disasters caused by extreme weather events, the political impetus to combat global warming is weakening all over Europe. Not only far-right forces want to stop ambitious climate policy, but also other political parties tend to neglect this field. To counter those political forces, climate litigation tries to hold national governments accountable to their goals as enshrined in the Paris Agreement. Courts represent one of the arenas in the struggle for climate protection. However, the battle is ultimately won or lost in the legislative arena.
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How Populist Politicians Are Weakening the Kenyan Judiciary
The Kenyan President and his parliamentary allies are guilty of constitutional vandalism. In what has become an increasingly popular political move, they conveniently blame the judiciary for their unfulfilled promises, making the courts an easy target in a democracy backsliding. Lacking public outreach – judges neither organise rallies nor post on social media –, the judiciary has become a scapegoat to rally political support. While courts aren't beyond criticism, some attacks are self-serving, often from those with pending or impending court cases.
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Shipwreck after Shipwreck
On 26 February 2024, the European Ombudsman issued a decision OI/3/2023/MHZ on the fundamental rights obligations of Frontex with regard to search and rescue in the context of its maritime surveillance activities. While affirming Frontex’s compliance with the applicable rules and protocols, the inquiry exposed significant shortcomings in how the Agency handles maritime incidents, including the issuance of emergency signals. Given the persistent scale of recurrent shipwrecks, I argue that integrating AI systems into Frontex’s activities has the capacity to significantly improve the decision-making process in responding to boats in potential distress and the overall SAR system.
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A Constitutional Dignitary Conceived in the Orbán-Regime
On 26 February, Tamás Sulyok, the former President of the Hungarian Constitutional Court, was elected Head of State by the Parliament. The election of Tamás Sulyok as a member of the Constitutional Court and then as its president was part of the process during which Fidesz took over the Constitutional Court. Sulyok’s presidency (2016-2024) was a testimony to the fact that the Constitutional Court has become subservient to the Fidesz-dominated political branches, and there is no sign that he has actively tried to do anything against it. Based on what we have seen so far, therefore, Tamás Sulyok is part of the Orbán-regime, and nothing suggests that he will exercise greater autonomy and independence in his role as Head of State.
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Ecocide à la Bruxelloise
Belgium's new ecocide provision has been hailed as a resounding victory for environmental activists, particularly so for the burgeoning Stop Ecocide campaign. But is the widespread excitement justified? Can the new law deliver on the lofty expectations? And how does it fit within the soon-to-be adopted revision of the Environmental Crime Directive at the EU level? Despite constituting a highly symbolic step, I argue that the Belgian law’s constrained scope makes it a toothless tool to punish environmental outlaws in practice.
Continue reading >>Enshrining Abortion Rights in the French Constitution
On International Women’s Day 2024, President Emmanuel Macron signed an amendment, that enshrines abortion rights in the French Constitution. Abortion is now a constitutionally “guaranteed freedom” for women in France: but constitutionally guaranteeing this freedom is also — if not even more — a call-out to the rest of the world. By constitutionalizing the right to abortion, French parliamentarians and government officials aimed to signal this commitment to the global community, with a particular emphasis on the United States.
Continue reading >>Tatsächliche Gleichberechtigung statt Blumen
Und wir stehen solidarisch mit den Frauen in der ganzen Welt, die noch immer für Gleichberechtigung kämpfen!
Continue reading >>Substantive equality, not flowers
And we stand in solidarity with the women all over the world who are still fighting for equality!
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The Digital Services Act as a Global Transparency Regime
On both sides of the Atlantic, policymakers are struggling to reign in the power of large online platforms and technology companies. Transparency obligations have emerged as a key policy tool that may support or enable achieving this goal. The core argument of this blog is that the Digital Services Act (DSA) creates, at least in part, a global transparency regime. This has implications for transatlantic dialogues and cooperation on matters concerning platform governance.
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How Europe Dodges the International Arms Control Regime
F-35 fighter jets are the world's most sophisticated weapon. This post argues that the legal basis for Dutch exports in the F-35 programme shows a worrying disregard for international law regulating arms exports. Dutch legislation does not require the government to carry out a detailed and prior assessment of the export of F-35 components. This is a clear breach of the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT). What’s more, the Netherlands is not the only European state that blatantly ignores its procedural obligations under the ATT, but countries such as Denmark and the UK have adopted a similar approach. Hence, one wonders whether dodging the ATT regime by European states in the F-35 programme is part and parcel of the negotiation package on commercial contracts with the US
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Climate Protests and City Bans
As climate protests are mounting across Italy, there is a corresponding escalation in repressive responses from public authorities. This trend is not unique to Italy but is rather widespread throughout Europe, as evidenced by frequent reports in national newspapers and posts on this blog. What sets Italy apart from other European nations is the spectacular increase in the use of preventive measures by the public security administration.
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The ECtHR Advances the Battle against Racial Profiling in Wa Baile c. Suisse
On 20 February 2024, the European Court of Human Rights decided in the case of Wa Baile c. Suisse on racial profiling. This blog argues that the judgment represents a cautious step forward in the fight against racial profiling and repairs some shortcomings of earlier case law. The ECtHR holds that Switzerland violated Article 14 in combination with Article 8 ECHR. It reverses the burden of proof and accepts that both the lack of an adequate preventive framework and reports by international human rights bodies and NGOs contribute to establishing a presumption of discrimination.
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Trump and the American Problem of the Commons
Americans missed another opportunity on Monday to reduce the threat Donald Trump presents to constitutional democracy in the United States and in other countries. The Supreme Court in Trump v. Anderson unanimously overturned decisions that held Trump ineligible to run for the Presidency. Three justices acknowledged that Trump is an “oathbreaking insurrectionist.” None challenged that Trump committed treason on January 6. Nevertheless, in an unsigned per curium opinion that had some basis in policy, but little or no foundation in the constitutional text or history of the Fourteenth Amendment, the justices ruled that states had no power to determine whether persons were eligible for the presidency under Section 3.
Continue reading >>Hundred Days of Fico IV Administration
In Slovakia, we are witnessing something truly extraordinary. Within the first hundred days of the new administration, Slovakia has experienced a paradigmatic change in the penal codes, an attack on civil society organizations, an abolishment of the Special Prosecutor’s Office, a bill for a limitation of the whistleblower protection, and politicization of independent institutions. Accordingly, I argue that Slovakia faces a much faster democratic backsliding than what was happening in Hungary and Poland. Based on the pace of the initial steps, we can expect a radical shift in Slovakia’s democratic character and its position in international relations.
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Presidential Dismissals of Judicial Officers in Tunisia
The situation unfolding in Tunisia serves as a stark example of blatant executive overreach into the realm of the judiciary. On February 12, 2024, Youssef Bouzakher, one of the most senior judges in Tunisia, submitted an individual communication against Tunisia to the UN Human Rights Committee. Through a series of presidential decrees adopted during 2021-2022, he was removed from his position as High Judicial Council member and President and was later dismissed from his judicial position together with 56 other magistrates. In this blog post, I will analyze the centrepiece of the assault on the Tunisian judiciary by President Kais Saied, namely presidential decree 2022-35, in light of international standards on judicial independence, and particularly, the ones from the African system.
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Re-Imagining the European (Political) Community through Migration Law
The constant portrayal of migration as an exceptional and problematic phenomenon fuels public anxieties and makes deterrence and harshness seem like the only effective political approaches to managing global migration. By contrast, positive visions of how a society of immigration needs to look like for all members of society to benefit are scarce. Yet to counter apocalyptic scenarios, we need not only such a positive vision but also a theory of societal action that helps to realize it. This blog post offers such a vision and theory that is grounded in the normative and legal framework of the European Union. It argues that we should conceptualize the European society as an inclusive, participatory, and self-reflexive community that is based on constitutional principles as enshrined in Art. 2 TEU. To realize this vision, we must understand practices of claiming and defending human rights not as an overreach into the political latitude of the legislator but as a joint practice of (political) community-building.
Continue reading >>The Place of Numbers in Migration Debates
The governance of migration, in particular of asylum migration, is caught in the contrast between the political relevance of numbers, and the individuum-based structure of the law. For politics, it matters how many persons arrive, require shelter, enter procedures. For the legal assessment, however, numbers mostly do not matter: The right not to be rejected at the border, the right to access an asylum procedure and to shelter during that procedure are individual rights that are independent from the overall number of arrivals. This contrast is visible in periodical debates about a maximum number of asylum seekers per year, or proposals to abolish the individual right to protection altogether. Such proposals disregard that individual rights to protection are enshrined not just in constitutional law, but also in European and international law, and for good reason. However, it is worth taking the perspective of numbers seriously – while respecting the individual right to protection.
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Halbzeit
Ein Brief von irgendwo zwischen Erfurt und der Elbestraße
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Pushing Back
The CJEU has pending before it a crucial case on the criminalisation of seeking asylum and assistance to those seeking protection. At this critical juncture, this blog post highlights a sample of important decisions in which courts, giving effect to constitutional and international legal principles, set legal limits on this form of criminalisation. These cases reflect not only the appropriate legal limits, but also acknowledge the character of irregular migration and smuggling. Rather than framing individuals as dangerous illegal migrants and exploitative smugglers, they reassert the humanity of both those in search of refuge and opportunity, and those that assist them.
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No Benefit
On January 18, 2024, the German federal parliament (Bundestag) passed the controversial Repatriation Improvement Act which de facto criminalises humanitarian support for entry by land as well as entry of minors by sea, land, and air. The German provision resembles both in wording and substance Article 12 of the Italian Consolidated Immigration Act (TUI) whose compatibility with EU law the CJEU is set to rule on, following a preliminary reference procedure initiated in July 2023. While the effect of a pending referral is uncertain, in the current case, the German government should have suspended its legislative process.
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When Treaties are Forbidden
A few months ago the UK’s Supreme Court held that the Secretary of State’s policy to remove protection seekers to Rwanda to have their claims determined there was unlawful. The British government responded to this decision with a Treaty and Bill that seek to legislate the fiction, or indeed, the falsehood, of Rwanda’s safety. This move demonstrates the fragility of the rule of law, both domestically and internationally. Addressing the latter, this essay shifts focus from domestic challenges to international ones, exploring whether STCs could be contested as ‘forbidden treaties’.
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Humanitarian Externalisation
Why are the reasons given in support of the declared aim of the current asylum policies in the UK, EU and USA of breaking the business model of smugglers expressed in humanitarian terms? It is, no doubt, tempting to simply dismiss this humanitarian rhetoric as hypocrisy, as the compliment that vice pays to virtue. Yet however justified that dismissal may be in particular cases, to turn away too quickly from this phenomenon would be to miss something of political significance in its form and to fail to register the historical entanglement of humanitarianism and border externalisation.
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No Backdoor for Mass Surveillance
Bulk data retention is the evergreen of European security policy. On February 13, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) – once again – ruled in Podchasov on Russia’s collection of and access to citizens’ private communication. The Court made it clear that weakening the encryption of all citizens cannot be justified. This sends an important message not only to the Russian state, but also to other European governments that contemplate installing “backdoors” on encrypted messenger services like Telegram, Signal or WhatsApp.
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The Future of Legal Struggles
The year 2023 was not a good year for the rights of asylum seekers. The decision about a new legal framework for the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) was described as a "historic moment" (Ylva Johansson), but in fact works as a programme of disenfranchisement. If the pursuit of progressive positions are blocked in the political arena, actors shift their strategies to the judicial field. Even before the summer of migration 2015, successful legal struggles had a significant impact on European migration policy. Push-backs on the high sea were prohibited and transfers of asylum seekers to inhumane conditions under the Dublin system were prevented. The draft for the new CEAS are characterised by attempts to circumvent the consequences of these judgements. In this blogpost, I will discuss what the future of legal struggles within the framework of the new CEAS might look like.
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Asylum-Seekers’ Right to Free Movement
Restricting the freedom of movement of unwanted asylum seekers is the conceptual core of the CEAS reform package politically agreed upon by the EU’s legislative institutions in December 2023. Large groups of the people seeking international protection in the EU will be subject to so-called border procedures. Their claims will be processed while being ‘kept at or in proximity to the external border or transit zones’ (Commission proposal) in order to prevent their onward movement and to facilitate ensuing deportations. Introducing such confinement measures will be mandatory for all Member States, provided that an asylum seeker meets certain criteria, in particular a low rate of success of earlier protection claims made by his or her fellow nationals, calculated on an EU-wide average. Why did we fail to make asylum-seekers’ right to free movement relevant in context of the CEAS reform?
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Risky Recommendations
2024 will see numerous elections, including the European Parliament Elections in June. The Digital Services Act (DSA) obliges Big Tech to assess and mitigate systemic risks for “electoral processes”. The Commission published Draft Guidelines on the mitigation of systemic risks for electoral processes and sought feedback from all relevant stakeholders. While the protection of election integrity is a laudable aim, the Guidelines as proposed would not rebuild but further erode citizen trust in the digital environment and democratic processes. The recommendations are too vague, too broad and too lenient as regards the suggested cooperation between Big Tech, civil society and public authorities.
Continue reading >>Understanding European Border Management
This contribution highlights how European border management disrupts conventional state-centric understandings thereof, while fostering impunity for human rights violations in its enforcement. EU borders are increasingly controlled in a supranational fashion by a panoply of different actors with different legal mandates and obligations, expanding within and beyond the physical frontiers of Member States. In addition, new technologies and the political turn to the logic of ‘crisis governance’ are contributing to changing the traditional practice of border controls, with a multiplicy of actors being involved in a complex dynamic of securitization. The actors, practices and the legal framework governing European border controls are rapidly changing; yet underlying linear and territorial assumptions and liability regimes remain unchanged perpetuating serious human rights shortcomings.
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Chasing Shadows
The Net Zero Industry Act (NZIA) was touted as the European Union’s big response to the US Inflation Reduction Act. A year ago, the Biden administration’s new green subsidy program spooked the EU into a flurry of industrial policy announcements. Now, the political dust has settled, and the EU’s main green industry initiatives will finally hit the legislative books. So, what has become of the EU’s new green industry agenda, and what can we learn from it about Europe’s role in the new global age of industrial policy?
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The EU’s Eastern Border and Inconvenient Truths
The Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, alongside with the EU’s confrontation with Russia’s ally Belarus, however, has deeply impacted the securitisation of migration within the EU. Highly politicised conflict-related securitisation narratives have rarely found their way so swiftly into Member States’ domestic migration and asylum laws, leading to open and far-reaching violations of EU and international human rights law. Hardly ever before have ill-defined concepts and indiscriminate assumptions been so broadly accepted and used to shift from an individual-focused approach to blanket measures stigmatising, dehumanising and excluding entire groups. And rarely before have radical changes of this kind received so little criticism - a deeply unsettling and dangerous trend.
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How the EU Death Machine Works
Since 2015, more than 27.500 innocent people died or ‘went missing’ in the Mediterranean. They drowned by themselves thanks to villain smugglers, the Council submits; accountability for the death toll is a complex matter, the Court of Justice finds; besides the geopolitical times are complex – the Commission is right. But what an accident: mare nostrum, a great thoroughfare, turned itself into a racialized grave. Yet, these deaths at EU borders, just as mass abuse and kidnappings by EU-funded and equipped thugs in Libya do not happen by chance. The EU-Belarus border is another locus of torture and violence. All this is a successful implementation of well-designed lawless policies by the Union in collusion with the Member States. In this post, we map key legal techniques deployed by the designers of the EU’s death machine.
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Rethinking the Law and Politics of Migration
2023 was, to put it mildly, a terrible year for (im)migrants and their human rights. With the declared end of the Covid pandemic came an end to the exceptional border policies it had led to which had further restricted already weakened migrants’ rights. Yet governments have largely chosen to replace them with legal frameworks that incorporated many of the same rights negating policies and ideas- except for this time they put them on a permanent legal basis. Liberated from their initial emergency rationales, asylum bans have now joined outsourcing and overpopulated mass detention camps as standard methods of migration governance. What is the role of legal scholarship and discourse at a time where governments seem increasingly comfortable to eschew many long-standing legal rules and norms, often with majority support?
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On Citing Van Gend & Citing it Correctly
There are multiple common misunderstandings that have, over time, taken on the status of established truths. For example, to Sherlock Holmes is often attributed the quote “Elementary, my dear Watson”, which never appears in the Conan Doyle novels. Neither did Voltaire ever confide to anyone that he “disagreed with what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it”. In EU law, there exists a similar widespread misconception, albeit tiny in nature. Simultaneously, it does concern the probably most famous ruling ever delivered by the European Court of Justice, so the comparative weight is substantial.
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The Curious Fate of the False Claim of Genocide
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered another blow to Ukraine’s litigation strategy. The ICJ only confirmed its jurisdiction for considering Ukraine’s narrow claim that it had not committed genocide in Donbas. As we have previously argued, given the expected modest outcome of the case for Ukraine, it would make sense for Ukraine to expand its litigation strategy beyond the false claim of genocide. Ukraine may consider lodging a new lawsuit before the ICJ under the Genocide Convention, alleging that Russia breached the Convention by committing genocide against Ukrainians as a protected national group.
Continue reading >>Accountability for the Crime of Aggression against Ukraine
Two years have passed since Russia launched its full-scale invasion of Ukraine – an act of aggression which 141 states of the UN General Assembly (UNGA) condemned as such shortly after. This crime of aggression has brought unimaginable suffering to the people of Ukraine. As this blog will highlight in the following, a reform of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) concerning the crime of aggression is necessary and long overdue. The current jurisdictional regime leaves accountability gaps, which have become painfully visible in the past two years. Plausible suggestions for the reform are already out there – it ultimately “all depends on the political will” of the 124 ICC state parties.
Continue reading >>Unsere kämpfende Demokratie
Wie die ukrainische Demokratie in diesen herausfordernden Zeiten bestehen kann.
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Our Fighting Democracy
How Ukrainian democracy manages to persist in these challenging times.
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Taking War to Court
A surprise attack launched by Hamas on October 7 ignited yet another period of violence in Israel and Gaza. In response, Israel launched an unprecedented invasion of the Gaza Strip, which resulted in the deaths of over 25,000 Gazans, most of them civilians. While the war does not seem to come close to an end, Israel has meanwhile encountered a different kind of problem; following the October 7 attack, Israel captured hundreds of Hamas fighters. Immediately following the start of the war, voices in Israel urged the government to launch criminal prosecutions of these attackers, with some arguing that Israel should impose the death penalty on the perpetrators.
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A2D for Researchers in Digital Platforms
Over the past decade, access to data (A2D) in digital platforms has emerged as a significant challenge within the research community. Researchers seeking to explore data hosted on these platforms encounter growing obstacles. While legal policies in the US have generally focused on establishing safeguards for researchers against the restrictions on access imposed by private ordering, the recent EU Digital Service Act (DSA) introduces a legal framework, which enables researchers to compel platforms to provide data access. These complementary legal strategies may prove instrumental in facilitating A2D for research purposes.
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Pakistan’s Qazi Court and Who is Afraid of the Cricket Bat
In a fundamental misunderstanding of classical Islamic law, legendary sociologist Max Weber conceptualised it as ‘Qadi justice’ quintessentially characterized as an Islamic judge “sitting under a tree” handing out informal and irrational decisions. Weber may have been incorrect in his characterization of Islamic law, but the Qazi Court of Pakistan appears to fit that mould. In several decisions, the Qazi Court effectively condoned the unconstitutional delay in elections, suppression of the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) of Imran Khan’s election campaign, and turned a blind eye towards a campaign of repression by the military-backed establishment. However, the unkindest cut of them all to Pakistan’s democracy and the legitimacy of the elections was the Qazi Court’s decision denying the PTI its electoral symbol: the cricket bat.
Continue reading >>The DSA’s Trusted Flaggers
One of the most-publicized innovations brought about by the Digital Services Act (DSA or Regulation) is the ‘institutionalization’ of a regime emerged and consolidated for a decade already through voluntary programs introduced by the major online platforms: trusted flaggers. This blogpost provides an overview of the relevant provisions, procedures, and actors. It argues that, ultimately, the DSA’s much-hailed trusted flagger regime is unlikely to have groundbreaking effects on content moderation in Europe.
Continue reading >>The Legal Limits of Supporting Israel
On January 26, 2024, the International Court of Justice (‘ICJ’ or ‘the Court’) issued its provisional measures order on the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel). This article provides an overview of the legal implications of the ICJ’s order for third-party states providing political, financial, or military support to Israel, including the US, Canada, the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands. I argue that the plausibility of genocide establishes the necessary evidentiary threshold to trigger state responsibility for third-party states on the international level as well as to initiate domestic legal proceedings.
Continue reading >>Will the DSA have the Brussels Effect?
The Digital Services Act (DSA) is a comprehensive effort by the European Union (EU) to regulate digital services. Many on-lookers in Europe and beyond its borders wonder about whether the DSA will influence activities outside of Europe via a “Brussels Effect.” In this contribution, we argue that when it comes to extraterritorial spill-over effects of the DSA that are driven by economic incentives or de facto standardisation and private ordering.
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Autocratic (Il)legalism
It is a common myth that since the Fidesz-KDNP coalition has almost always had a two-thirds parliamentary majority since 2010, the Orbán-government could pass its illiberal legislative reforms in a legally correct manner. In reality, however, many laws that constitute the pillars of Orbán’s illiberal regime were enacted in violation of the procedural requirements of the rule of law. The European Commission’s country visit to Hungary provides an opportunity to remind the EU bodies of their responsibility to enforce all requirements of the rule of law without compromise.
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Human Rights Outsourcing and Reliance on User Activism in the DSA
Article 14(4) of the Digital Services Act (DSA) places an obligation on providers of intermediary services, including online platforms hosting user-generated content (see Article 3(g) DSA), to apply content moderation systems in “a diligent, objective and proportionate manner.” Against this background, the approach taken in Article 14(4) DSA raises complex questions. Does the possibility of imposing fundamental rights obligations on intermediaries, such as online platforms, exempt the state power from the noble task of preventing inroads into fundamental rights itself? Can the legislator legitimately outsource the obligation to safeguard fundamental rights to private parties?
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Towards a Digital Constitution
The DSA exemplifies the EU's efforts to create a fairer, more responsible digital environment. Through the DSA, the EU appears to be advancing a process of constitutionalisation of Internet governance, as an important milestone in the evolving landscape of “digital constitutionalism”, aiming to establish a unified framework of rights, principles, and governance norms for the digital space, while also contributing to the development of new governance structures and regulatory bodies dedicated to effectively safeguarding fundamental rights online.
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European Nuclear Weapons
After Donald Trump’s announcement to withhold US military support in case of an attack on a NATO member by Russia under certain circumstances, a discussion has been sparked on whether Europe itself should have their own nuclear weapons for nuclear deterrence. However, given the progress in the legal framework of nuclear non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament, European nuclear weapons would violate international law.
Continue reading >>Who’s Afraid of Militant Democracy, U.S. Style
Yesterday, Professor Samuel Issacharoff asked “Can it really be that one public official in Maine can remove a national presidential candidate on her say-so?” Professor Issacharoff and I, as well as every proponent of disqualification I know of, agree on a basic point. Right-wing populist authoritarianism cannot be defeated by legal decree. Government by the people cannot be maintained by means other than government by the people. Disqualifying individual candidates who resort to violence when they lose the vote, however, does not raise the difficulties that concern Professor Issacharoff and are consistent with democratic rule.
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How the DMCA Anticipated the DSA’s Due Process Obligations
Among other things, the new DSA requires platforms to provide “due process”-like protections for user-authors. This regulatory approach is an important Internet Law development, but it’s not completely novel. The DMCA also contains several due process-like protections for user-authors. This post identifies some of the DMCA’s due process elements, compares them to the DSA’s analogous provisions, and discusses the lessons from the DMCA for the DSA. Though the DSA uses a different policy paradigm than the DMCA, it’s unclear if it will achieve better outcomes.
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The CJEU’s Feminist Turn?
In Case C-621/21, the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) held that women in general and women facing domestic violence in their country of origin in particular, qualify as a protected ‘social group’ under EU Directive 2011/95 and thus avail themselves for refugee status or subsidiary protection in the Common European Asylum System. This contribution applies the perspective of feminist approaches to international law to critically analyze what this decision means for women and victims of gender-based violence – in- and outside of the European Union.
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EU’s Involvement in the Renewal of the Spanish Council of the Judiciary
The growing political polarization of Western liberal democracies often leads to situations of political deadlock that require the intervention of an external authority capable of untangling the knot. After the second (fruitless) meeting held today between Commissioner Reynders and representatives of the Spanish government and the main opposition party, there is no simple solution in sight to an issue of the renewal of the Spanish Council of the Judiciary with significant implications for the immediate future of the Spanish political scenario. In this blog, I argue that underneath all the technical layers of legal order invoked under the generic defence of the rule of law, there are political and democratic debates for which the EU may play an important yet uncertain and questionable role.
Continue reading >>Restoration of the Polish Constitutional Tribunal as Reading the Constitution Forward
The question of how to restore the fallen and degenerated body that once was the Polish Constitutional Tribunal is finally to make its way to the Parliament this week. The stakes are clear: If we get lost in legalese and accept half-baked solutions, it will taint all ambitions and legislative projects aimed at restoring the rule of law in Poland. To avoid this mistake, the “fake court” should be “zeroed out” and newly appointed.
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Trump’s Trials for Democracy
It is hard to imagine a stable democracy having to confront the legal challenges presented by Donald Trump’s bid for reelection. Courts have found him to be responsible for sexual assault, defamation and fraud, all in relatively quick succession. Taken together with repeated acts of demagogy and cruelty, the various legal proceedings reinforce the sense that Trump simply does not belong within the bounds of legitimate democratic contestation. But the charges against him thus far are civil claims that have no formal bearing on his bid for office. Nor do they seem to affect public opinion as the polarized electoral environment has little intermediate play that might be swayed by scandal, legal condemnation, or even the sense that enough is enough.
Continue reading >>A Hobgoblin Comes for Internet Regulation
Recent laws in the US, along with the Digital Services Act (DSA), seek to provide “due process” for individual content moderation decisions. Due process, understandably enough, often contains a component of treating like cases alike. It seems to follow, then, that if two relevantly similar users are treated differently, there is a problem of inconsistency, and that problem might be addressed by requiring more “due process” in the forms of appeals and clear rules and explanations of those rules to offenders. But it is said that consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds. In internet regulation, it is a damaging goal if taken as a mandate to make individual decisions uniformly consistent with each other.
Continue reading >>From the DMCA to the DSA
On 17 February 2024, the Digital Services Act (DSA) became fully applicable in Europe. The DSA's new approach fundamentally reshapes the regulation and liability of platforms in Europe, and promises to have a significant impact in other jurisdictions, like the US, where there are persistent calls for legislative interventions to reign in the power of Big Tech. This symposium brings together a group of renowned European and American scholars to carry an academic transatlantic dialogue on the potential benefits and risks of the EU’s new approach.
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The Triumph of Evil
Putin's regime finally murdered Alexei Navalny, a Russian patriot and freedom fighter. Regardless of how the events on 16 February unfolded, his death is a direct result of the actions of Russian state agents who had long been working towards his death. Putin’s belief in his absolute impunity, reinforced by appeasement, was a decisive factor that facilitated Alexei Navalny's murder. However, what happened to Navalny must not happen to Vladimir Kara-Murza, Aleksei Gorinov, Ilya Yashin, and many others. Navalny’s death is a huge loss for all Russians who believe in a free and peaceful future for their country, but also for Europe and the world.
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Ein Brief aus der Stabi
Drinnen sitzen, während draußen die Hölle los ist
Continue reading >>A Letter from the Stabi
Sitting inside while outside all hell is breaking loose
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In Search of a Methodical Approach to Seat Apportionment in the European Parliament
The European Parliament is once again trying to tackle the problem of how to apportion its seats between member states. In one of those rare Treaty instances, Parliament is obliged to initiate this procedure itself [Article 14(2) TEU]. It has so far failed in this obligation, and finding a decent solution still proves difficult. However, on 14 February 2024, the Parliament’s Constitutional Affairs Committee (AFCO) organised a workshop to consider three alternative formulae, all of which respect the principle of degressive proportionality. The blog outlines these proposals and explicates the challenges of the search for a methodical approach to seat apportionment in the European Parliament.
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Heyday of Autocratic Legalism in Slovakia
Slovakia’s parliament approved an amendment to its criminal code and associated legislation that, if it comes into effect, will significantly reduce the prescription periods for various crimes including rape, the penalties for others, and abolish the Special Prosecutor’s Office. Despite a narrative claiming to commit to restorative justice by reducing lengths for prison sentences and implementing a more diverse set of conviction options, the legislative changes perpetuate violence through autocratic legalism on the vast majority of the Slovak population, and especially those vulnerable to abuses of power. This assault on the criminal legal system in Slovakia by the ruling illiberal coalition is expected to put the Constitutional Court under pressure.
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Why the Russian Constitution Matters
Russia’s failure to become a democracy after the collapse of the Soviet Union is not an inevitable product of its history. On the contrary, it has been shaped by the adoption of a constitutional system of centralised power in the office of the president. Long term democratic reform will require more than just Putin leaving the office of the presidency. Avoiding a system of ‘Putinism without Putin’ will also require a new Russian constitutional foundation that breaks with centralisation and reshapes the later structural chapters of the constitution to balance power between institutions.
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Polish Re-Democratisation as “Building Back Better”
Since the new Polish government took power, it has taken first steps to restore the rule of law. These have been quite different in nature, from the soft appeals to comply with the case law of the CJEU to more uncompromising and confrontational measures, like taking control of the public broadcasting TVP. It is clear that restoring a damaged liberal democracy requires a different mindset than fighting its demise. While the latter aims to strategically delay the anticipated undemocratic endeavours, the former must constructively rebuild. I call this ‘Building Back Better’, akin to the UN risk-reduction approach employed to avoid future disasters.
Continue reading >>Advancing Accountability
In Alkhatib and Others v. Greece, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has condemned Greece for yet another instance of human rights violations in border management. By underlining the importance of clear regulations and adequate evidence within border operations, the Court showed avenues to enhance the accountability framework for violations perpetrated at Europe’s borders. Its decision contrasts favourably with the approach taken in the EU at large, where both legislators and national and supranational courts generally disregard the opacity in regulations governing border operations and the difficulty of collecting evidence for migrants.
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A Shortcut at the Expense of Justice
On 31 January 2024, the International Court of Justice rendered its judgment on the merits of a case initiated by Ukraine against the Russian Federation in 2017. Ukraine alleged numerous violations by Russia of two treaties: the 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. This blog post provides a brief overview of the decision and argues that the Court sidestepped the task of reconstructing what has happened in reality via judicial fact-finding. This approach comes at the expense of several legal errors. The harsh realities of the conflict and, most importantly, the human suffering on the territories of Ukraine occupied by Russia seem far removed from the grandeur of the Peace Palace.
Continue reading >>“Rented Uterus” as a Universal Crime
The principle of universal jurisdiction (UJ) has traditionally been grounded in the idea of a collective response to the most heinous crimes on a global scale. Italy, a country that currently lacks universal jurisdiction for international crimes, is amid deliberations on a proposed bill advocating for the use of universal jurisdiction in cases of surrogacy. This analysis contends that the underlying political motive behind this bill is to curb all forms of same-sex parenthood, inadvertently resulting in a criminal law framework that would specifically impact male-gay couples. Secondly, it draws a parallel with “memory law”, illustrating how legal mechanisms initially established in the enthusiasm of the ‘90s are now being repurposed as instruments for divisive political agendas.
Continue reading >>Teaching Human Rights in Russian Legal Education
The growing mistrust towards the West in Russia since the early 2000s, as well as general disillusionment with the results of political transition and economic reforms, along with the aggressive anti-human rights propaganda of the Russian regime for a long time, has led to a perception of human rights as a "Western theory" that does not fit the Russian people. This context made it easy in the 2010s to weaponize human rights in the Kremlin’s foreign policy rhetoric and subsequent direct aggression; the rhetoric of "protecting human rights" became the justification for both the annexation of Crimea and the initiation of full-scale aggression against Ukraine.
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Dutch Court Halts F-35 Aircraft Deliveries for Israel
In a landmark decision, the Hague Court of Appeal ordered the Dutch government on 12 February 2024 to stop supplying Israel with F-35 fighter jet parts because there was a “clear risk” that serious violations of international humanitarian law (IHL) would be committed with the aircraft in Gaza. In their unanimous decision, the three judges relied on the European Union (EU) Common Position on Arms Exports and the Arms Trade Treaty as they apply to Dutch law, which outline criteria against which military exports must be assessed to determine the risk of abuse. The judgment made important findings on the nature of these risk assessments, which may have significant implications in future litigation.
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Desperate Times, Desperate (Provisional) Measures
On 12 February 2024, South Africa requested the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to consider exercising its power under Article 75(1) of the Rules of Court to indicate provisional measures proprio motu against Israel. This is an extraordinary request by South Africa, coming less than three weeks after the Court indicated provisional measures against Israel on 26 January 2023. It is also very rare for the Court to act proprio motu, whether prompted by a state’s request or otherwise. South Africa’s latest request is a response to Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s statement on 9 February that Israel is preparing a ground invasion of Rafah in the south of Gaza. How will the ICJ respond to South Africa’s request? In this regard, the method by which South Africa seeks the Court’s intervention merits attention.
Continue reading >>Christine de Pizan
In conversations on missing female voices in the traditional development of international law a repetitive argument given as an explanation for the absence of women as active designers and contributors to international law is that it was simply unusual to find women in certain professions at that time due to the assignment of gender roles and corresponding conduct and activities considered as adequate. There is certainly a great deal of truth in this explanation. Nevertheless, the argument that the absence of women was a normal side effect of the traditional social circumstances at that time could also serve as an excuse to overlook, ignore and make women invisible, who have actually played a crucial role as active designers of the international legal order. One of them is Christine de Pizan.
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Absolute Truths and Absolutist Control
Last week, the Bombay High Court delivered its judgment in Kunal Kamra v. Union of India, comprising a split verdict on the constitutional validity of the Information Technology Rules, 2023. The rules install an institutional regime for determining – and warranting takedown by social media intermediaries – of content relating to the Central Government deemed “fake, false or misleading”. This regime was challenged on three main grounds – first, its violation of citizens’ free expression due to “fake, false, or misleading” speech being constitutionally protected; second, the pedestalization of state-related information, such that it enters public discourse with a single, truthful formulation, as being an illegitimate and disproportionate measure; and third, the violation of natural justice in enabling the state to determine truth and falsity concerning itself.
Continue reading >>Can the Russian Constitution Still Strike Back?
Three decades after the adoption of the Russian Constitution, we must admit that it has not become an effective safeguard against the usurpation of power and state terror. The conditions under which the Russian Constitution could have served as a secure barrier to the revival of authoritarianism and state terror is a profound question warranting a separate discussion. I suggest that we should look a few steps ahead and imagine an optimistic scenario of a new attempt to establish democracy and rule of law in Russia – regardless of how improbable such a scenario may seem at present. One of the priorities of such an attempt will be to overcome impunity for the perpetrators of crimes of the Putin regime.
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Protect the German Federal Constitutional Court!
For a long time, we felt in Germany as though we were in a world of bliss. While the independence of the judiciary was being attacked in Poland, the USA and most recently in Israel, we were blessed with a strong constitutional court. Over the decades, it has proven to be independent and impartial; it has earned immense trust and respect among the public. However, the independence of the Federal Constitutional Court is built on sand. Now, a public debate has flared up as to whether and how the independence of the Constitutional Court should be protected. A look into other legal systems can contribute to this debate.
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The Year of the Defense of Life, Liberty and Property
Following his inauguration on December 10, Argentina's President Javier Milei has pursued his governmental goal to reduce the size and expenses of the state and to deregulate productive activities by issuing Executive Order (DNU) 70/23, titled "Bases for the Reconstruction of the Argentine Republic." This executive order is unprecedented in Argentina's history for its ambitious scope, addressing a wide range of issues in a single directive. This blogpost maps some constitutional questions that arise with Milei’s choice of implementing his governmental agenda via Executive Order, including their status in Argentina’s constitutional system and available mechanisms for congressional and judicial control.
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Consolidating Group-Based Refugee Protection
Two pending cases before the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) provide an opportunity for the CJEU to consolidate group-based refugee protection. At the heart of the cases is a concern with granting refugee protection to groups of persons based on their inherent characteristics, in this case women and girls from Afghanistan. However, as the joined cases of AH and FN highlight, this is often due to an apprehension amongst asylum decision makers over the grant of protection to large groups of persons based on sex and misconceptions surrounding gender-based violence and discrimination.
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What Went Wrong and What Could be Done?
The question should perhaps be “what went right?”. I argue that for more than 30 years, as a result of a key provision in the Constitution, and the work of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (CCRF) there were many positive changes to Russian law and practice. These advances were only possible as a result of Russia’s membership of the Council of Europe and ratification of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). But that chapter in Russia’s constitutional history has been closed.
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Why Nicaragua’s Article 62 Intervention in South Africa v. Israel is Potentially Unhelpful
On 23 January 2024, Nicaragua applied for permission to intervene in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel). Nicaragua's application will drag proceedings out one way or another. Potentially it means the Court must hear and decide upon a third version of events, clouding South Africa’s original case. If this case is really about addressing what the Court described as a ‘human tragedy’ in Gaza and not just about political point-scoring, Nicaragua, by trying to help, may just have made things worse.
Continue reading >>Legitimizing Authoritarian Transformation
In the early 1990s, the Constitutional Court of Russia (RCC) was viewed as an important institution for protecting human rights and facilitating the democratic transition. However, the good intentions of the constitutional drafters were insufficient to overcome the country’s totalitarian legacy and practices. An examination of the RCC’s evolution over three decades reveals two significant trends: Firstly, the RCC transformed into a machine for legitimizing laws designed to dismantle political competition, civil society, and civil liberties. Secondly, this dynamic did not prevent the RCC from losing its independence and political weight after the constitutional amendments of 2020. In this blog post, I will provide a brief overview of the RCC’s most controversial decisions over the past 30 years, along with the measures taken to destroy independent constitutional review in Russia.
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Für einen zivilen Verfassungsschutz
Warum es auch bei einem erfolgreichen AfD-Parteiverbotsverfahren in der Zukunft auf die Zivilgesellschaft als kritische Kontrollinstanz ankommt.
Continue reading >>In Favour of Civilian Constitutional Protection
Why civil society will continue to be critical even if the AfD party ban proceedings are successful.
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Women’s Rights and the Russian Constitution
Since the beginning of Russia’ aggression against Ukraine, the government’s rhetoric has become more conservative and nationalistic. In 2022-2023, Russia witnessed the introduction of a slew of oppressive legislation directly violating human rights. Against the backdrop of Putin’s focus on the fight against the ‘enemies’ and Russia’s isolation due to ‘fighting for the right cause’ women once again became the target of regulation with a steady and consistent assault on their human rights, particularly reproductive rights. Moreover, as women actively participate in anti-war protests, the authorities have been treating women more harshly during arrest, trial and sentencing as various reports show. Nevertheless, women continue to fight for their rights and freedoms in courts and on the streets, hoping for change.
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UNRWA as Sui Generis
Since UNRWA preemptively disclosed Israel’s claim to have evidence that 12 UNRWA employees participated in the 7 October 2023 attacks, at least 16 donor states and the European Union, which collectively supply the vast majority of the Agency’s budget, have suspended their contributions. This poses an existential threat to UNRWA, the largest provider of humanitarian assistance in Gaza. This post explains how the current episode displays the unsatisfactory sui generis status of UNRWA’s Palestinian staff, and forms part of an ongoing and largely successful attempt to position UNRWA as a compromised, sui generis UN organisation which constitutes an outlier in the law and practice of the United Nations.
Continue reading >>Exercising Power from the Outside
Since 2019, anti-Islam non-parliamentary activists have explored the limits to freedom of speech in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands through their provocative Quran desecration acts. Using the non-parliamentarian arena to exercise power from a position of minority, the far-right activist Rasmus Paludan and his party were able to effectively push the Danish constitutional boundaries, while at the same time affecting the geopolitical situation. While the protests so far only have had legal repercussions regarding blasphemy and freedom of speech in Denmark, it clearly demonstrates that non-parliamentary far-right activists also hold certain legislative powers.
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Subnational Politics and the Path of National Democracies
In Germany and the United States, political factions have emerged in the last decade that have challenged some of the core institutions, conventions, and norms of liberal democratic life. In both countries, subnational units of government—states or municipalities—have operated as staging grounds for parties or factions of parties that reject some or all necessary elements of democratic practice. While they have used different institutional tactics to this end, many basic elements of political strategy can be observed across the two cases.
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Regime Adaptation Within Russia’s Judicial Elites
The case of Valery Zorkin, chairman of the Russian Constitutional Court, shows how elites prioritize their own survival and therefore do not oppose a repressive and aggressive regime, most likely because they fear revenge from liberal peers and victims of the system. And since the war against Ukraine, elites have another reason to stay loyal. For those who fear being held responsible for a war of aggression and war crimes, Putin is the only “guarantor of stability.”
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Grundrechtsverwirkung und Parteiverbote gegen radikale AfD-Landesverbände (Teil III)
In diesem abschließenden dritten Teil werde ich die dritte These des Beitrags begründen: Die Verfassungstreuepflicht engt das politische Antragsermessen für solche Anträge umso stärker ein, je klarer ihre Voraussetzungen erfüllt sind. Sie reduziert dieses Ermessen auf Null und begründet eine Antragspflicht, wenn, wie hier, die Voraussetzungen hinreichend klar vorliegen und die zu erwartenden Nachteile die Vorteile eines Antrags jedenfalls nicht klar und eindeutig überwiegen. Sie verlangt zudem auch von allen Amtsträger:innen, nicht zuletzt auch von der Staatsrechtslehre, sich stärker gegen diese Bedrohung der freiheitlichen Demokratie zu wenden, als das bislang vielfach geschieht.
Continue reading >>Examining the EU’s Artificial Intelligence Act
Finally, consensus on the EU Artificial Intelligence Act. The academic community is thus finally in a position to provide a (slightly) more definitive evaluation of the Act’s potential to protect individuals and societies from AI systems’ harms. This blog post attempts to contribute to this discussion by illustrating and commenting on the final compromises regarding some of the most controversial and talked-about aspects of the AI Act, namely its rules on high-risk systems, its stance on General Purpose AI, and finally its system of governance and enforcement.
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Grundrechtsverwirkung und Parteiverbote gegen radikale AfD-Landesverbände (Teil II)
Das demokratische Haus in Deutschland brennt. Es ist höchste Zeit, die Instrumente der streitbaren Demokratie gegen Landesverbände der AfD einzusetzen, die mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit verfassungswidrig sind, wie die in Thüringen, Sachsen und Sachsen-Anhalt. Warum die Voraussetzungen für Grundrechtsverwirkung und Parteiverbot dort vorliegen, und die Verfassungstreue es auch verlangt, diese Anträge zu stellen, begründe ich in diesem dreiteiligen Beitrag. In diesem zweiten Teil werde ich näher auf die Voraussetzungen für ein Parteiverbot für die fraglichen Landesverbände eingehen, aber auch darauf, welche Rolle in dieser Debatte gerade auch Staatsrechtslehrer spielen, die den Volksbegriff des Grundgesetzes in einem ethnisch-exkludierenden Sinn verstehen.
Continue reading >>Paving the Way for Violence
The negative effects of the 1993 conflict prevailed over the benefits from the end of a confrontation. Its outcomes raised a major barrier to the democratization of Russia and paved the way for the use of violence as a means of preserving power. This conflict contributed to the maximization of presidential power and to the weakening of checks and balances in the constitution, which included significant authoritarian potential. The political order established in Russia after the 1993 conflict largely determined the subsequent trajectory of Russian political evolution and its drift towards a personalist authoritarian regime.
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Grundrechtsverwirkung und Parteiverbote gegen radikale AfD-Landesverbände (Teil I)
Das demokratische Haus in Deutschland brennt. Es ist höchste Zeit, die Instrumente der streitbaren Demokratie gegen Landesverbände der AfD einzusetzen, die mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit verfassungswidrig sind, wie die in Thüringen, Sachsen und Sachsen-Anhalt. Warum die Voraussetzungen für Grundrechtsverwirkung und Parteiverbot dort vorliegen, und die Verfassungstreue es auch verlangt, diese Anträge zu stellen, werde ich in diesem dreiteiligen Beitrag begründen. In diesem Teil werde ich darlegen, warum eine Verwirkung mit Wählbarkeitsausschluss möglich ist und deren Voraussetzungen voraussichtlich auch erfüllt sind.
Continue reading >>Bricolage, Bullshit, and Bustle
On 15 December 2023, the Swiss Federal Council (Government) announced that it intended to start formal negotiations with the EU on the conclusion of a Framework Agreement (FA) 2.0. Five existing and two new treaties between the EU and Switzerland are to be subject to dynamic alignment and institutionalised, i.e. provided with a monitoring and judicial mechanism. The project, which is practically fixed in the decisive questions by a “Common Understanding” (“CU”) between the two parties, is based on a triple B approach: in substance, it consists of unsuccessful bricolage, the foundations were laid by bullshit, and because elections and a change of the Commission are imminent in the EU, bustle is supposedly of the essence. The CU summarizes what the Parties have informally agreed on.
Continue reading >>Heightening the Repressive Dynamic
The new French Immigration Act was promulgated and published on 26th January 2024, the day after the Conseil Constitutionnel decision which censored 35 provisions in one of its longest decisions to date. The Conseil chose to emphasize the Constitution’s procedural requirements, while largely avoiding substantive analysis of the Act’s drastic reduction of foreigners’ rights. Indeed, it asserted the constitutionality or remained silent on many provisions that undercut foreigner’s rights. The Act as promulgated thereby constitutes the most repressive text since 1945 and heightens a migration restrictive dynamic.
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Unveiling Democracy
On 11 January, Advocate General Richard de la Tour delivered his Opinions in two cases, against the Czech Republic and Poland, which cautiously uncover part of the core of the EU value of democracy. The Commission launched these infringement cases against the two Member States back in November 2012 and April 2013 respectively. Now that the rule of law is a well-established principle of EU law, these cases present themselves as a chance to focus on a less explored value enshrined in Article 2 TEU. They allow the Court to construct a foundation to address prospective questions regarding democratic principles.
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Unsere Würde in Euren Händen
Warum nicht nur die Verfassung, sondern Millionen Menschen in Gefahr sind.
Continue reading >>Our Dignity in Your Hands
Complacency now will endanger millions of people, not the Constitution.
Continue reading >>Milieudefensie v ING: Climate Breakdown and Banks’ Duty of Care
There is a trend towards climate lawsuits against companies based on their alleged duty of care not to emit more than a certain amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Currently, there are four such cases before courts in Germany, all of which have been unsuccessful so far. On 19 January 2024, Milieudefensie, a Dutch environmental group, initiated legal proceedings against the Dutch Bank ING, for the first time raising the issue of whether financial actors have such a duty of care. This case represents a significant milestone in the worldwide effort to transform the financial sector and curb its seemingly endless appetite for financing fossil fuels. In light of these proceedings, I argue that the German courts have adopted an imprecise understanding of what the duty of care entails and that an appropriate application of this duty can increase the accountability of financial actors.
Continue reading >>An Unfortunate Trend of Vagueness
The German Government is planning to change the procedural and substantive legal framework on international criminal law in Germany, with an expert hearing having taken placed on 31 January 2024 before the German Parliament’s (Deutscher Bundestag) Legal Affairs Committee. One aspect appears to have been totally neglected by the current draft proposal: the issue of functional immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction in case of core crime charges. In this post, I highlight an ambiguity regarding the personal scope of functional immunity arising from German case law which the German Government and Parliament should take the opportunity to clarify with the current reform proposal. This is particularly important given that the ambiguity appears to have traveled to other jurisdictions as illustrated by the case of Ziada v. Netherlands.
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Civil Disobedience and Judicial Theories of Political Change
This post considers the latest episode of Australia’s engagement with civil disobedience under its constitutionally ‘implied freedom of political communication’ — Kvelde v New South Wales (‘Kvelde’). In Kvelde a judge of the New South Wales Supreme Court followed the tendency of some High Court judges of reducing the democratic value of civil disobedience to binary terms: if a form of political speech is already illegal, the Court will not engage with further legislative acts seeking to increase penalties for it. I describe this as the ‘binary approach.’ I argue that the binary approach reflects a particular judicial theory of political change not necessarily prescribed by the freedom, that is also out of step with historical Australian political practices.
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The Limits of Public Participation
In this piece, I critique the proposed people-driven constitution-making process in South Sudan, identifying some challenges that may hinder meaningful participation by the people. One is mass illiteracy: over 70% of the population is illiterate. This can impact the people’s capacity to meaningfully engage with some of the complex issues that may arise from the process. Another factor is that involving the people could exacerbate existing ethnic tensions in the country, as constitution-making is inherently divisive. My suggestion is to entrust the process to experts with oversight by parliament.
Continue reading >>The Ambivalent Juridification of Humanitarian Space
While humanitarian actors remain hesitant and somewhat suspicious to legal regulation, litigation, and lawyers, the sector is going through a process of juridification: the law regulates more activities, is more often used to solve conflicts, and the legal profession is getting more involved in the nuts and bolts of humanitarian lawyering. Most importantly, individuals in crisis and aid workers increasingly see themselves as legal subjects – whether as workers, rights-holders, or customers. My objective in this blog is to encourage the humanitarians to deal with these developments more comprehensively. Moreover, this blog post takes stock of the ambivalence to law and emergent shifts in the sector and calls for international law scholars to pay more attention.
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Funktionen eines Parteiverbotes
Das Parteiverbotsverfahren konfrontiert die Mitglieder der politischen Gemeinschaft mit der Frage, wo sie die Grenzen des politischen Raums ziehen wollen. Es verlangt eine Entscheidung der Frage, welche politischen Ziele, Werte und Forderungen im politischen Raum – in organisierter Form und mit dem Ziel einer Repräsentation im Parlament – vertreten werden dürfen und welche jenseits einer Tabugrenze liegen. In diesem Beitrag soll die These begründet werden, dass das Gericht den Verbotsmaßstab für ein Parteiverbot 2017 in problematischer Weise reformuliert und dem Anliegen des Art. 21 Abs. 2 GG damit möglicherweise mehr Schaden als Nutzen zugefügt hat.
Continue reading >>South Africa v Israel: A Solomonic Decision as “Constructive Ambiguity”
In its wise Order of 26 January 2024, the ICJ managed to make a virtue out of a necessity: Israel was not prohibited from continuing its combat operations but was reminded of its strict compliance with international humanitarian law and its obligation to avoid genocide. At the same time, the ICJ reiterated the requirement to respect the most fundamental rights and the core of humanitarian law to all warring factions. Despite still essentially being a court for inter-state disputes – it put the individual, the human being, at the centre. Henceforth, the ICJ’s order of provisional measures is a Solomonic decision at its best and a further step towards the “humanization of international law”.
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Is the Norwegian Paradox Coming to an End?
A wind of change is sweeping in the last stronghold of European petrostates: Norway. The recent decision rendered on January 18, 2024, by the District Court of Oslo in the North Sea Fields Case may testify to the demise of what was once called the Norwegian paradox, referring to Norway’s dual role as a climate leader internationally while maintaining a significant reliance on fossil fuels domestically. Despite advocating for climate action on the global stage, Norway remains the largest per capita exporter of CO2 emissions, due to its substantial petroleum industry.
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Shielding Frontex 2.0
In Hamoudi v Frontex, the General Court dismissed another action that could have clarified if, when, and how independent or joint human rights responsibility would arise when Frontex is engaged in shared operational conduct with the Member States. This time not on the basis of an obscure re-interpretation of the Applicant’s claim, but instead, on the basis of an unattainably high and unrealistic burden, standard and method of proof. In doing so, the General Court again eschews from clarifying the nature, conditions and consequences of both independent and joint human rights responsibility of Frontex. Taken together, these cases raise the question whether there are any viable forms of judicial recourse for fundamental rights violations committed or contributed to by the EU’s Border and Coastguard Agency.
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Provisional Measures as Tools of American Empire
One could feel the weight of history on her shoulders, as Judge Joan Donoghue, President of the International Court of Justice, read the provisional measures order in South Africa v Israel. Her hand reached several times for the glass of water. Carefully, and with an occasional sip of water, she walked her viewers on the ICJ’s streaming service from one provisional measure to the next. By first zeroing in on the role of the American judge, this post describes how the provisional measures decided upon, ultimately correspond to a larger project of global American governance. As I will argue the US Executive Branch is likely to take a lead role in interpreting the provisional measures, further cementing their place as tools of empire.
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A Way Forward?
While included in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (CFR), academic and scientific freedom were for years hardly a focus for the EU. This no longer holds true. On 29 November 2023, the European Parliament invited stakeholders to discuss the state of academic freedom in Europe (STOA conference), including the role of the EU in its legal protection. The conference intertwines with two important developments, both driven by the EP. First, on 22 November 2023, the EP adopted its proposals for the amendment of the Treaties, with some relevant for academic freedom protection. Earlier this month, on 17 January 2024, the EP approved the Report calling on the Commission to initiate a legislative proposal on the promotion of the freedom of scientific research in the EU and providing recommendations on its content. In this blog post, we briefly discuss these two EP calls aimed at enhanced protection of academic and scientific freedom to assess to what extent they address the concerns raised by various stakeholders.
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Kündigung der Vielfalt – ohne Diskussion
Wie Deutschlands Medienlandschaft besser vor rechtspopulistischen oder rechtsradikalen Ministerpräsidenten(innen) geschützt werden könnte.
Continue reading >>Ending Diversity without Debate
How to Safeguard Germany's Free and Pluralistic Media .
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Too Little, Too Late
All signs indicate that the various procedures and instruments invented and used by the European Commission to improve the situation of the rule of law in Hungary have so far not been successful. In fact, apart from a few sham measures, democracy and rule of law, in their simplest definitions (the possibility to overthrow the incumbent government through free and fair elections, and the limitation of political power by law) are in a worse situation in Hungary today than when the various mechanisms for protecting the rule of law were launched or payments were suspended. Why have the tools used by the European Union so far proven ineffective? Finding the causes of a complex phenomenon is never easy, but the experience of recent years makes it possible to identify some that can explain this failure.
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Measuring with Double Legal Standards
Less than two hours after Israel had closed its pleadings, the German Government released a press statement, announcing its intent to intervene as a third party under Article 63 of the Statute of the ICJ (ICJ Statute). Therefore, it can be assumed that Germany did not take sufficient time to conduct a comprehensive assessment prior to its decision. At all costs, it sought to be perceived as being on Israel’s side. Germany’s decision may not appear startling given that it had previously intervened in both genocide proceedings against Russia (Ukraine v Russia case) and Myanmar (Rohingya case). However, in the latter case, Germany joined Gambia in upholding a purposive construction of Article II Genocide Convention, which would seem to present a serious obstacle to support Israel. Thus, this contribution investigates whether Germany, in its intervention in the "Genocide in the Gaza Strip case", would be able to abandon its previous submissions in the Rohingya case and instead adopt a more restrictive construction of the Article II Genocide Convention.
Continue reading >>Counter-Genocidal Governance
The International Court of Justice’s decision regarding South Africa’s request for provisional measures in its genocide case against Israel is expected tomorrow. Whatever the Court decides, it is worthwhile noting that the impact of the process is already evident. And any provisional measures that may be given, will shape a years-long and likely tense dialog between Israel and the Court, as well as third countries. Everything that will happen for the duration of the proceedings, over the next two or three years at least, will continue to build evidence until, finally, the owl of Minerva will spread its wings. My purpose in this post is to provide some provisional reflections on how that may work. In doing so, I will expand a bit on a notion I’ve tried to develop in a previous post, that of counter-genocidal governance.
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Free Speech in the Shadow of the Israel-Gaza War
Since Hamas’ attack on October 7, and the war between Israel and Gaza that ensued, constraints on speech have become more widespread in Israel, both on the formal and informal level. Restrictions on anti-war demonstrations, police violence toward protestors, investigations and indictments for “incitement to terrorism” or “identifying with a terrorist organization” and other speech-restricting measures, have become the norm. At the much less discussed, informal level, Israeli media has largely embraced a non-critical position, failing to provide audiences with information as to the situation in Gaza, and providing almost all the analysis from an internal Israeli perspective. While this cannot be construed as a formal restriction on speech, it nevertheless speaks to the informal mechanisms that render criticism unpalatable during times of war.
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Mehr Sicherheit für den Sicherheitsapparat
Wie Thüringens Polizei und Verfassungsschutz besser vor einer autoritären Regierung geschützt werden könnten
Continue reading >>More Security for the Security Apparatus
How to protect Thuringia's police and office for the protection of the constitution from an authoritarian-populist takeover
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Leading the Way
There is little doubt that climate change in all its facets is one of the most pressing global issues of our time. Increasingly, we see international and regional treaty bodies addressing it. Much has been written about ongoing procedures in front of the International Court of Justice, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). However, other regional developments, such as the African Commission’s study on the impact of climate change or the request for an advisory opinion on the climate emergency to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) have regrettably received less attention. As we have submitted an amicus curiae to the latter proceeding, we want to contribute to its prominence and present the core arguments of our intervention to the Court. In particular, we highlight the nexus between climate change and forced displacement from a complementary protection perspective.
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Unpacking the Critical Raw Materials Act
The recently adopted Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) is framed as a milestone for the EU Green Industrial Plan and the twin green and digital transitions. In the context of emerging green industrial policies and the resurgence of the state as an economic actor, the Act encapsulates the EU’s attempt to instrumentalise markets for public objectives. Yet, the bid to generate tailored and specific market outcomes is undercut by the Act’s primary strategy of adjusting risks and returns for ultimately volatile, profit-driven private initiative. At the same time, the Act’s focus on domestic green growth, even if read charitably, remains myopic to the global challenge of climate change and perpetuates existing patterns of core-periphery extractivism.
Continue reading >>Rule of Law Abnegated
This year is the second winter that thousands of asylum seekers will spend on the cold streets of Brussels. More than 2700 of them are still without any material assistance and shelter. 869 of them have a domestic court order recognising their right to reception, yet the Belgian government has consistently refused to implement them. This deliberate refusal to secure the human rights of migrants, especially where these are single males, is not only creating a humanitarian disaster in Belgium’s streets but also undermines the raison d’être of Belgian democracy. While the government’s actions have been condemned by human rights experts and courts alike, we argue it is arguably reflective of a worrying wider trend in the EU of the impotence of the law to secure human rights for migrants.
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Germany Blocks Europe-Wide Protection of Women Against Violence
Gender-based violence has dramatically increased in the European Union (EU) in recent years. In particular women are widely affected by rape. On 8 March 2022, the Commission presented a Draft Directive for comprehensive, effective and enforceable protection against gender-based violence in all EU Member States. The main point of contention in the negotiations, which could ultimately prevent the adoption of the Draft Directive, is the introduction of the common definition of the criminal offence of rape. The Directive aims to harmonize across Europe the definition of rape as a violation of the consent-based sexual act. Yet, twelve Member States, with Germany and France at the forefront, are not convinced that the EU has a sufficient legal base to regulate that issue. This article highlights the arguments for a common regulation of the criminal offence of rape in the EU under Art. 83 (1) TFEU against the doubts raised by the German Federal Ministry of Justice.
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Legislating fiction
Members of Parliament in the UK will on 16 and 17 January 2024 debate the Safety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill, which ‘gives effect to the judgement of Parliament that the Republic of Rwanda is a safe country’ for asylum-seekers. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled in November 2023 that Rwanda was manifestly not safe as asylum seekers sent to the country would face a real risk of ill-treatment due to insufficient guarantees against refoulement. The Bill thus aims to use law to determine a factual situation for as long as the law is in force. This blog discusses the risks inherent in creating such a ‘legal fiction’ and how the Bill could be revised to mitigate this risk, before assessing the chances of it becoming law in the currently turbulent political context.
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Managed Violence
In its application to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), South Africa seeks a ceasefire as a provisional measure. However, after the oral arguments, it seems rather unlikely that the entire scope of the provisional measures will be granted. This post seeks to offer some preliminary reflections on what a “softer” provisional measure would mean for the law and politics of the “genocide” category. Initially, such measures would slightly complicate predictions on whether and how Israel will comply, and how it will manage ramifications for its reputation. More importantly, I suggest that such provisional measures would almost inevitably position the Court, for the duration of the proceedings, in a position of quasi-bureaucratic governance. I call this counter-genocidal governance. As shown in other national security contexts, such judicial governance is a double-edged sword. While moderating certain aspects of state violence, it may legitimate others.
Continue reading >>Polnisches Pandämonium
Den Rechtsstaat wiederherstellen ist nichts für schwache Nerven.
Continue reading >>Staatsräson: Empty Signifier or Meaningful Norm?
Following the shocking Hamas atrocities against the state of Israel and its people on 7th October 2023, German state representatives keep voicing unwavering support for Israel: “(A)t this moment there is only one place for Germany. The place beside Israel. That’s what we mean by saying: Israel’s security is German Staatsräson”1), Chancellor Olaf Scholz emphasised in the German Bundestag, confirming “full solidarity with the people of Israel” and emphasising “that Germany stands unwaveringly on Israel’s side.“ As this public claim leads beyond solidarity, which other states have also expressed in light of the Hamas atrocities, many wonder what – if anything – the Chancellor’s reference to the norm actually means beyond uttering moral support?
Continue reading >>Why Germany Should Join Sides with Israel before the ICJ in its Defense against South Africa’s Accusation of Genocide
Yesterday and today, the ICJ heard an application for provisional measures brought by South Africa, in which Israel is accused of the particularly serious crime of genocide against Palestinians in Gaza due to its reactions to the Hamas attacks of 7 October 2023. This participation in the proceedings, as well as other reasons to be explained below, speak in favor of also declaring an intervention in the proceedings between South Africa and Israel – in this case, however, with the aim of supporting Israel as defendant and countering the South African argumentation.
Continue reading >>The Missing Party
South Africa’s argument today was historic and extremely important. If you missed it, I recommend that you go back and look for the recording. For the Israeli viewer, at least, the South African argument was a real service because at last, we could connect to a very dominant narrative in world politics, which is completely concealed by Israeli media. However, the hearing also exposed a problem in South Africa's argument, which was also apparent in the written application. The South African case brought before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) is highly selective. Prof. John Dugard, in an impressive performance, described how observers watched the events of October 7th “with horror”. But people reading the documents and listening to the oral arguments, without otherwise following the events, might think that before and after October 7, Palestinian forces did not shoot a single bullet.
Continue reading >>Time to talk about academics’ role in Qatargate
Two years ago, we discussed the problems associated with revolving doors at the European level on this platform. One year ago, Qatargate was on the agenda. Confronted with a slew of ‘gates’ that challenge the legitimacy of EU decision-making and the ethics of its politicians and staff, EU institutions rushed to propose a series of reforms to prevent future scandals. We could discuss in detail the causes and consequences of these scandals, what they teach us about the state of European democracy, and the inadequacy of the reforms undertaken. Instead, we have chosen to redirect our focus inward, contemplating the broader scholarly community. We believe this introspective analysis is what EU institutions should have done, rather than hastily shifting to the technicalities of reform proposals.
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Did the Israeli Supreme Court Kill the Constitutional Coup?
On January 1, 2024, the Israeli Supreme Court struck down a constitutional amendment prohibiting judicial review of actions of the government, the prime minister, or any minister based on the “reasonableness” doctrine. The judgment illustrates how societal and judicial vigilance in recognizing “early warning” signals of potential “constitutional capture” may play a significant role in battling such processes. However, notwithstanding this judgment and the halting of the legislative process, the threat of democratic backsliding in Israel persists. The ongoing war has, in fact, paved the way for further anti-democratic measures, some of which were upheld by the very same Court that struck down the anti-reasonableness amendment.
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The Body of the Judge and the Suffering of the Collective
The widespread prediction among experts right now is that Israel’s chances of prevailing at the ICJ in its response to South Africa’s genocide application are slim. Let’s assume, for a moment, that the prediction is accurate. As has been reported, Israeli authorities, too, have acknowledged that there’s a real risk of an ICJ decision against Israel. What does this mean for Israel’s legal strategy? When a party is preparing to lose in a proceeding, one relevant question is what the minority opinion will look like. Aharon Barak’s appointment as an ad-hoc judge for the ICJ proceedings may reveal some of the outlines Israel is preparing for this minority opinion: even if we lose, we may still try to convince the world that the issue at hand is none other than the memory of the Holocaust. But this is a morally and politically risky choice to make.
Continue reading >>Putting X’s Community Notes to the Test
All of the biggest social media platforms have a problem with disinformation. In particular, a flood of false information was found on X, formerly Twitter, following the terrorist attack by Hamas on 7 October 2023 and the start of the war in Ukraine. The EU Commission therefore recently initiated formal proceedings against X under Art. 66 para. 1 of the Digital Services Act (DSA). One of the subjects of the investigation is whether the platform is taking sufficient action against disinformation. Despite these stakes, X takes an approach different to all other platforms: As can be inferred from the X Transparency Report dated 03.11.2023 posted information is not subject to content moderation, but solely regulated through a new tool: The Community Notes.
Continue reading >>One-sidedly Staffed Courts
In Poland, the new parliamentary majority elected on October 15 is confronted not only with a president brought into office by the PiS party but also with a constitutional court made up exclusively of judges elected under the aegis of PiS. Any effort to restore the rule of law in the Polish judiciary is likely to meet resistance from these veto players. The difficulties to be expected for the new majority in dealing with the rule of law deficiencies that have piled up in the Polish justice system, and especially in the Polish Constitutional Tribunal since 2010 (on these difficulties here, pp. 227 ff., and here) draw attention to an underlying problem to be witnessed not only in Poland, and not only in other countries where democracy and the rule of law have deteriorated or never existed: the problem of courts, and in particular constitutional courts, with a blatant lack of political balance in their composition.
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The European Game
The long-awaited judgement of the Court of Justice of the European Union in Case C-333/21 - European Super League Company has finally arrived. There is a lot to unpack, especially with respect to developments in competition law. Constitutional lawyers will, however, find particular interest in how the Grand Chamber dismissed Advocate General Rantos’ pitch for a constitutional recognition of the European sports model based on Article 165 TFEU. This post focuses on this aspect of the European Super League judgment. It argues that while the Advocate General’s construction was rejected, the Court still used this judgement to further define its own constitutional understanding of the European sports model, as well as to solidify its role as the primary interpreter of that model.
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2023: ein Blick zurück
Die Verfassungsblog-Texte des Jahres aus Sicht der Redaktion
Continue reading >>Looking Back on 2023
The Verfassungsblog Posts of the Year from the Editorial Staff's Point of View
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Sri Lanka’s Economic Crisis Before the Supreme Court
On 14th November 2023, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka issued a landmark decision holding several high-ranking executive officials responsible for the economic crisis of 2021-2022. This was widely regarded as the worst economic crisis the country had experienced post-independence; it manifested itself in a rapid depreciation of the currency, dramatic shortages of fuel which saw vehicles in mile-long queues at fueling stations, and rolling electricity cuts throughout the island. In mid-2022, two petitions were filed in the Supreme Court alleging that several officials named as respondents were responsible for this economic crisis. In this blogpost, I argue that the court’s decision has significant implications for the scope of the fundamental rights jurisdiction, and for the court’s potential role in future controversies.
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Avoiding the Legacy of Impunity
This week for the second time in history the Irish Government has announced its intention to lodge an Inter-State application against the United Kingdom before the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The Irish government argues that the Northern Ireland Troubles (Reconciliation and Legacy) Act 2023 which was enacted in September 2023 and provides an extensive conditional amnesty is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights.
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Testing the Limits of Deliberative Constitutionalism
On 14th December 2023, a parliamentary committee in Ireland issued a report recommending a referendum on inserting environmental rights, including rights of nature, into the Irish Constitution. The origin of those recommendations was the prior Citizens’ Assembly on Biodiversity Loss, which was formally linked to the committee. These events are another important chapter in the unfolding story of deliberative constitutionalism, with Ireland often cited as a leading example. The fate of the constitutional reforms proposed by the Assembly and the committee on environmental rights will provide important insights into: 1) when deliberative recommendations can gain the necessary political support for implementation; 2) whether institutional design can improve the likelihood of political support for citizen-led constitutional reform.
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Same, Same but Different?
The Commission’s decision to release a significant amount of EU money is a testament to some serious pitfalls in the mechanism, which governs the unblocking of frozen EU funds. To recall, Hungary’s endowments are blocked via two different channels, based on two different conditionality criteria, which have some overlapping points. Both prescribe reforms to preserve the independence of the judiciary, which according to the Commission’s justification has been successfully accomplished by Hungary. The Commission has, however, never published a detailed plan that would attach a specific amount to be released to every sufficiently satisfied conditionality criterion. In this blog post, I showcase that the overlap between the two conditionality mechanisms and the absence of a robust ex-ante blueprint for releasing frozen funds make the unblocking process highly obscure. This lack of transparency both decreases the efficiency and robustness of conditionality, and increases the tendency for inter-institutional conflicts.
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Constitutional Identity vs. Human Rights
In two recent Latvian cases concerning the Russian-speaking minority decided respectively in September and November 2023, the ECtHR made clear that protection of constitutional identity has now been elevated to a legitimate aim for a differential treatment under the Convention. This post explores how the protection of constitutional identity has been deployed to enable a collective punishment by association with a former occupier, and how the ECtHR’s reasoning has effectively endorsed such a punishment, which is unbefitting of a liberal democratic system the ECHR aspires to represent. Until the three cases were decided, no liberal European democracy could argue without losing face that suppressing a large proportion of its population was its constitutional identity – one of the goals of its statehood. Today, this claim is seemingly kosher, marking a U-turn in the understanding of what the European human rights protection system is for minorities in Europe.
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Everybody’s Business
War has devastated Sudan since it first broke out on 15 April 2023. What started as a power play between the country’s two most powerful armies, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), has since metastasized into a major civil war. International actors have not paid this war the high-level attention it requires and deserves. This blog explains why international actors need to pay more attention to what is happening in the strategically located country at the crossroads between the Red Sea and the Sahel, between the Arab and African worlds. The war threatens Sudan’s integrity as a state, displaces millions and draws in neighbouring and other regional countries, all in a region already in turmoil because of coups, insurgencies and violent extremism.
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Can Germany Remain Silent?
Is Germany legally obligated to condemn violations of international humanitarian law? This argument was recently put forward in an article on Verfassungsblog. Elsewhere it was claimed that Germany, along with other States failing to utilize their full repertoire of diplomatic options (including “[calling] for a permanent ceasefire”), is in breach of its own IHL-responsibilities. Admittedly, international law does have a say when organs of States speak. Nevertheless, the intricacies of this matter go beyond first impression. I submit that such a duty is not as easy to derive in the present case as is suggested by opposing views.
Continue reading >>A European Dialogue on Strike Action
With its decision in Humpert and others v Germany of 14 December 2023, the European Court of Human Rights settled a long-standing debate: The ban on strikes for German Civil Servants does not violate the rights under the European Convention on Human Rights. This decision ends the strategic litigating efforts of the applicants and their union to obtain the right to strike for the approximately 1.7 million civil servants in Germany. The judgment is also the culmination of an extraordinarily intense dialogue between Strasbourg and Karlsruhe.
Continue reading >>Militant Rule of Law
To protect the rule of law based legal system against abusive use of the loopholes, imperfections, contradictions of the law, to avoid legal inertia legal positivist arguments are needed to convince and mobilize the legal mind. The same applies when the blind fortune of democracy provides the opportunity to erase the legally enthroned injustice and domination of illiberal regimes. When it comes to legal enactments that serve legal cheating the rule of law must respond to systemic abuse of the law, and that requires and justifies a rule of law based exceptionalism and a systemic remedy.
Continue reading >>Not Just Abortion
On 14 December 2023, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in the case M.L. v. Poland. The ECHR decided that the restrictions on abortion rights that Poland had violated Article 8 (right to respect for private and family life) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Contrary to the hopes of the initiators of the case, this is not a European Roe v. Wade moment. The ECHR again refused to affirm that Article 8 can be interpreted as conferring a right to abortion. Nevertheless, the ECHR made significant findings regarding Polish rule of law violations.
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Between Return and Protection
Last month, the ECJ responded to a preliminary reference of the Regional Court in Brno concerning Czechia’s so-called return procedure. The ECJ ruled that a third country national cannot be subject to a return decision if they applied for international protection and a first-instance decision on that application has not yet been delivered. Curiously, the ECJ thereby answered a question it had not actually been asked, while contradicting the conclusion of the Grand Chamber of the Czech Supreme Administrative Court (“SAC”), rendered shortly before. While the ECJ’s ruling will nonetheless improve some of the problems that have inhered within Czechia’s approach to international protection and return procedures, its failure to answer the referred question constitutes a missed opportunity to facilitate a productive dialogue with referring courts in an area of law where preliminary references have been exceedingly rare.
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A Duty to Rescue
Reports of migrants drowning in the Mediterranean have, unfortunately, become more and more frequent in recent years. A recently published MSF report has highlighted the role ‘pushbacks and systematic non-assistance to those at risk of drowning proliferate’ play in this regard. The report refers specifically to two events that happened in 2023 in which national authorities failed to launch rescue operations despite receiving the information on migrants in distress at sea hours before the tragedy. In this blogpost, we assess whether a coast guard’s failure to act in situations of migrants in distress might violate an incumbent criminal law duty to rescue. We map the core elements of the duty to rescue under criminal law and how they might apply to such a chain of events, using the abovementioned event of 14 June as an example.
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The EU’s Pacing Problem
The EU regulators face a pacing problem. This has been demonstrated several times during the legislative process of the AI Act itself: for example, the initial Commission proposal from 2021 did not include a definition of General Purpose AI (GPAI). The proposal did not anticipate the rise of Large Language Models like ChatGPT and GPT-4 but only addressed AI systems designed for specific purposes. This lacuna in the original proposal has haunted the EU Parliament, Council and Commission in the past final weeks of the trilogue negotiations, where the inclusion of so-called Frontier Models has been hotly contested. This blog post explores potential boosters for the EU's capacity to regulate AI: delegated legislation, soft law, and a centralized AI office.
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The Economic Distortions of the Federal Constitutional Court’s Debt Brake Decision
Germany is not facing a debt crisis, but rather a serious budget crisis triggered by the ‘debt brake’ ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court (FCC). This crisis is deeper than the 60 billion in unused "Corona debts" being shifted to a climate fund, as reported in the media. More fundamentally, the court has mandated that the federal budget strictly adhere to the "principle of annuality" (Jährlichkeit). This is the most significant impact of the court's ruling, and from an economic perspective, it is quite perplexing.
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One Step Forward, Two Steps Back
This blogpost unpacks some of the ‘democratic paradoxes’ that come with the ‘Defence of Democracy’ package (DoD package), which the European Commission published on Tuesday, 12th of December. While a Recommendation on promoting civic engagement and citizen participation (Civil Society Recommendation) reflects positive changes in the Commission’s conception of democracy, the ‘Directive establishing harmonised requirements in the internal market on transparency of interest representation carried out on behalf of third countries’ (Foreign Funding Directive) directly contradicts this emphasis on a more citizen-centred model and is illustrative of a broader dilemma: how to defend democracy in the EU’s multi-level constitutional space, while keeping the sensitive legal tools for doing so out of the hands of the enemies of democracy that are already – and for the time being irreversibly – on its inside.
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“This Is Not a Foreign Agents Law”
On Tuesday, 12 December 2023, the Commission adopted its long-awaited Defence of Democracy package, which includes a Proposal for a Directive on Transparency of Interest Representation on behalf of Third Countries. Dubravka Šuica, Commissioner for Democracy and Demography seemed eager to clarify what the Directive is not. Šuica emphasised that the Directive “is not a foreign agents law”. But the more a statement is repeated, the less credible it appears. Rather, the opposite appears to be true. And so, the devil is not in the name, it lies in enforcement. Despite the Commission’s assertion that full harmonisation of the Directive prevents Member States from gold-plating or potentially worse activities, the Commission has limited control over how Member States apply and enforce their national laws. This is the biggest risk of the proposal.
Continue reading >>(State) Immunity for Palestine?
On December 11, 2023, the Berlin Public Prosecutor's Office decided to discontinue investigations against Mahmoud Abbas, the President of the Palestinian National Authority. The declared reason for doing so lies in his immunity pursuant to Section 20 para. 1 of the German Courts Constitution Act (GVG). The decision is instructive with regard to Germany's understanding of sovereign immunity and Palestine's role in international relations.
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The EU’s Faustian Bargain
Twelve years into the EU’s rule of law crisis, this week has demonstrated that EU leaders are still unwilling to confront their own complicity in Orbán’s rise and to do something about it. Is this sad spectacle a price worth paying in exchange for a symbolic gesture of goodwill to Ukraine? That is the wrong question to ask. The right question to ask is this: if the EU continues to treat the rule of law as a bargaining chip and to make promises it won’t keep, for how much longer will our Union remain a club worth joining?
Continue reading >>Den Diskurs öffnen
Über Nutzen und Schaden pseudonymer Blogposts für Öffentlichkeit und Wissenschaft
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Opening the Discourse
The Pros and Cons of Pseudonymous Publishing for Science and the Public.
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Orbán’s Veto Play – The Subsidiarity Card
Viktor Orbán is known to use veto threats in the European Council to get his way. This time, he was keen to see that after months of tense exchanges with the Commission, Hungary gets access to EU funds that had been blocked in order to achieve compliance with the rule of law and fundamental rights conditionality. So, PM Orbán saw it fit to loudly contest Ukraine’s accession and the financial aid package of 50 billion Euros. This may be PM Orbán’s strongest veto play to date.
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Same Old, Same Old
Following the General Affairs Council on 12 December 2023, the Spanish presidency issued its conclusions on the evaluation of the Annual Rule of Law Dialogue (ARoLD). The overly positive assessment that transpires from the conclusion fails to convince, due to the continued reliance on confidentiality and the lack of any tangible standards. Moreover, the improvements suggested by the Presidency fall overwhelmingly short of addressing the issues that plague this instrument, confirming it as a weak exercise in posturing with no real stakes involved.
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Escaping Jurisdictional Blackholes
There is a lack of effective judicial protection in the field of EU Common Foreign and Security Policy. In a recent opinion, AG Ćapeta has suggested that the solution rests with asserting the possibility of establishing the non-contractual liability of the EU for breach of fundamental rights in CFSP cases, regardless of whether the measure imposes restrictions. However, the Council also has a positive duty stemming from the Charter to include a jurisdictional clause in all CFSP measures indicating the national court which has jurisdiction in those cases.
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To Score Is to Decide
Can the act of assigning a score to someone constitute a decision? This, in essence, is the question the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) had to answer in Case C-634/21. And the Court’s answer is yes, following in the footsteps of the Advocate General’s opinion on the case. Rendered on 7 December, this ruling was eagerly awaited as it was the first time the Court had the opportunity to interpret the notorious Article 22 of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) prohibiting decisions “based solely on automated processing".
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The Future of the Rule of Law in the EU
With systemic threats to and violations of the rule of law not subsiding, notwithstanding the expected end of backsliding in the case of Poland, the future of the rule of law in the EU is likely to be one of retrenchment accompanied by increased gaslighting to mask an increased gap between EU rhetoric and EU action. This means that the Commission’s decision to unlock € 10 bn of EU funding previously frozen on rule of law grounds to “sway Viktor Orbán on Ukraine” should not be seen as a once-off aberration but as prefiguration of a new abnormal normal.
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The Long Overdue Fall of Al-Kateb
On the 8th of November, the High Court of Australia delivered a landmark ruling that the indefinite detention regime under the Migration Act is unconstitutional, overruling the 2004 decision of Al-Kateb. The decision, both in form and substance, sent shockwaves through Australia’s legal and political establishment. In adopting the relatively uncommon procedure of issuing orders immediately following the hearing (with reasons to follow), a gap was created where politicians rushed to come up with a legislative response in the absence of any clearly articulated constitutional rules. In an island country, where several elections in the last 20 years have been ostensibly won and lost over concerns of ‘illegal’ immigration, this decision has been political dynamite.
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What’s Missing from the EU AI Act
The AI Act negotiators may still have been recovering from the political deal that was struck during the night of December 8 to 9 when two days later Mistral AI, the French startup, open sourced its potent new large language model, Mixtral 8x7B. Though much smaller in size, it rivals and even surpasses GPT 3.5 on many benchmarks thanks to a cunning architecture combining eight different expert models. While a notable technical feat, this new release epitomizes the most pressing challenges in AI policy today, and starkly highlights the gaps left unaddressed by the AI Act: mandatory basic AI safety standards; the conundrum of open-source models; the environmental impact of AI; and the need to accompany the AI Act with far more substantial public investment in AI.
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Taking Revenge for Dissent
Hungary’s latest judicial reform in May 2023 came in response to EU decisions to suspend the country’s access to funds due to serious rule of law concerns. The reform aimed, among other things, to strengthen the independence of the Kúria, the Supreme Court of Hungary. Experience to date shows that while on the level of formal legal rules, some improvements towards the rule of law have been made, in actual daily practice, the opposite is happening: While steps have been taken to restore the independence of the Kúria, the Chief Justice is working on further eroding the independence of individual judges.
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Why Poland Should Join the European Public Prosecutor
After the Polish parliamentary elections, the question of rebuilding the rule of law in Poland has been frequently raised in academic debate. The discourse is largely dominated by the status of the so-called neo-judges and the legal effects of rulings of the politically appropriated Constitutional Tribunal. We would like to highlight another problem that the new government will have to deal with – the functioning of the public prosecutor's office occupied by people associated with the Law and Justice party. There is a great risk that high-level prosecutors may effectively block or obstruct investigations into the irregularities committed under the PiS government. We believe that a partial solution to this problem might come from Poland's quick accession to the European Public Prosecutor’s Office planned by the democratic opposition.
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Trick and Treat?
Almost a year has passed since the European Union decided to block the payment of EUR 27 billion in union funds to Hungary under several instruments. Access to the largest part of the frozen funds - altogether EUR 13 billion - depends on whether Hungary complies with its undertakings to strengthen judicial independence. The government claims to have met all four of the so-called super milestones by adopting a judicial package in May 2023 and requests access to the blocked funds under Hungary’s Recovery and Resilience Fund (RRF) and ten different operative programmes. However, upon taking a closer look at the preconditions to the payments and the nature and implementation of the proposed reforms, it becomes clear that Hungary is still playing tricks to avoid compliance.
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Third Time’s A Charm?
The second process to draft a new constitutional text in Chile ended on November 7. A referendum to be held on December 17 will decide upon the fate of the constitutional proposal that resulted from it. Polls indicate that the proposal will be rejected, even if the option in favor of the proposal has been gaining support lately. Irrespective of the outcome of the referendum, it might be fair to say that this second version of the constituent process has already failed. In particular, I argue that just like the first draft, the second proposal seeks to constitutionally entrench the goals of the political factions that held the majority within the drafting organ, instead of providing a constitutional framework that would allow for broad self-governance based on the democratic principle.
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Die öffentlichen Verleumder
Ein Zorngedicht zum Trost in dunklen Zeiten
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The Sound of RBG
The year 2023, which is slowly approaching its end, has marked a twofold jubilee of the late US Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. It is both the 90th anniversary of her birth and the 30th anniversary of her Supreme Court appointment. Her immense impact on US law and culture has been honored in a variety of ways, from a special issue of the Harvard Law Review and a ship’s name to a LEGO figure. One dimension of her remembrance, however, often escapes notice, although it offers a unique understanding of RBG’s legacy. This dimension is classical music. Music history has on many occasions venerated living or recently deceased contemporaries – it is enough to mention Verdi’s Requiem and the tangled ways of Beethoven’s Eroica dedication. It is, however, an extremely rare form of tribute when extended to lawyers for the sake of their legal accomplishments as such. Let's take a look.
Continue reading >>Protecting the Fairness of European Parliament Elections via Preliminary Ruling
Supreme or constitutional courts regularly step in to protect the democratic process by deciding election disputes. It is remarkable that the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has so far barely been engaged concerning the European Parliament (EP) elections. Using Hungary as an example, I will argue in the following that the CJEU is institutionally well-positioned to help protect the integrity of the 2024 EP elections via preliminary ruling procedures. Hungarian democracy has been in decline, according to the EP, the Commission and various democracy indices. The problems include the lack of a level playing field, targeted action by authorities against opposition parties, overlaps between the activities of the government and the governing party, state funding of campaigning and party financing in general, lack of media pluralism, and the different means of voting for citizens living abroad (postal vote for some and not for others). I argue that the CJEU could and should be engaged to protect the fairness of the EP elections in Hungary.
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The Pilnacek case – A challenge also for the European rule of law
With the “Pilnacek” case, the debate on corruption in Austria – ongoing since the "Ibiza affair" (May 2019) but largely inconclusive so far – is heading for a new high point. The affair showcases massive political influence on the Austrian criminal justice system and proves that it is challenging to bring the problem of corruption under control. One of the main reasons is that Austria has not made the necessary adjustments to the European "acquis communautaire" since its (relatively late) accession to the EU and keeps ignoring fundamental principles of EU law. Since 2000, there have even been setbacks. The case of Christian Pilnacek illustrates the problem of corruption in Austria in an exemplary manner. Likewise, it underlines the continuing backlog of reforms in Austria and the country’s unwillingness to adjust to the European rule of law.
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Beating a Dead Horse
With the view of potentially revising how the EU Council’s Annual Rule of Law, the Spanish Presidency of the Council had sent out a “questionnaire for the Member States on the evaluation of the Council’s annual rule of law dialogue. The provided answers will inform conclusions to be adopted following the General Affairs Council scheduled for 12 December 2023. Following the disclosure of the MS’ answers to this questionnaire, this post will discuss the added value of this discursive and secretive tool to address systemic threats to or violations of the rule of law. I argue that the answers reveal the dialogue to be an ultimately toothless and partially incoherent exercise that relies excessively on the good faith of its participants and lacks accountability by design.
Continue reading >>We Are Not Helpless
The current debate on how to restore the standards of a democratic state under the rule of law in Poland reminds me of the dilemma faced by King Rex, as described by Lon L. Fuller. Like the king constantly falling into a trap we equally seem to be trapped. We know what should be done and what compliance with the rule of law means, yet we try to convince each other that every conceivable way out is bad. So do we need to refrain from taking any action and look in frustration at the systematic deformation of mechanisms that have worked quite well in Poland for a quarter century and protected us from pathology and the abuse of law?
Continue reading >>Rule of Law Eroded
Spain is going through turbulent times, marked by a strong political polarization and an increasingly evident decline in the rule of law due to the partisan takeover of institutions. This situation has been exacerbated by President Sánchez's investiture agreements with pro-independence parties, particularly Junts, led by the fugitive Puigdemont, who spearheaded the Catalan secessionist insurrection in the autumn of 2017. The bill grants amnesty for crimes committed in connection with secessionist efforts, including, among others, misappropriation of public funds, prevarication, and attacks against authority. The amnesty, as it currently stands, violates both the Spanish Constitution and basic tenets of the rule of law.
Continue reading >>BigTech’s Efforts to Derail the AI Act
Big Tech is trying to water down the AI Act, which is supposed to be finalized before the end of this year. This is yet another chapter in the private sector's influence on governments to turn AI regulation into a toothless self-regulatory framework. The narratives that lobbying power is trying to install follow a well-known pattern. This blog post goes into detail and explains what's at stake.
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The Belgian Climate Case
On November 30, the Brussels Court of Appeal rendered a landmark decision in the climate case brought by “Klimaatzaak” (“climate case” in Dutch) against Belgian public authorities (the federal and the three regional governments). In this decision, the court found the federal authority and the Brussels and Flemish regions’ climate action to be in violation of Articles 2 and 8 of the ECHR and of their duty of care, and imposed a minimal GHG reduction target to be reached by Belgian authorities for the future. In their blogpost, Alice Briegleb and Antoine De Spiegeleir provide a clear overview of the case, exploring its previous stages and insisting on the continuing failures of the Belgian climate governance and its complex federal structure. We focus on our part on how the decision makes it clear that the climate justice movement is now confronted with the tension between the legally required and the ethically desirable parameters of climate effort distribution.
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From Urgenda to Klimaatzaak
On November 30, the Brussels Court of Appeal handed down its ruling in VZW Klimaatzaak v. Kingdom of Belgium & Others, commonly known as “the Belgian climate case.” The ruling is clear: Belgian authorities failed to participate adequately in the global effort to curb global warming, and they must imperatively reduce their emissions. Subscribing fully to Matthias Petel and Norman Vander Putten’s sharp analysis of how this litigation saga embodies tensions between climate justice and the separation of powers, we wish to highlight three remarkable aspects of the case. After quickly summarizing the first instance judgment and last week’s ruling, we begin by touching on the elephant in the (court)room: the articulation of the available scientific evidence with the limits of courts’ power of review and injunction. Then, we say a word about the Brussels Court of Appeal’s thorough application of European human rights law. We finish by deploring, as did the Court, Belgian federalism’s inefficiencies.
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Perils and Pitfalls of Israel´s New ´War on Terror´
Over the last weeks, we were forced to realize that the way our – i.e. German – public opinion (and politicians) react to the ruthless assault of Hamas on 7 October differs markedly from the intuitions of the broad public in the Islamic world (and large parts of the ´Global South´ in general). Whereas our media (and speeches of politicians) are full of references to Israel´s right to self-defence, the sentiments voiced on the streets in the Middle East (and publicly stated by politicians such as Turkish President Erdogan) go in the opposite direction, stress the legitimate cause of the Palestinians and term the Hamas as a movement of national liberation. Clearly there is a legitimate cause in the fight of Palestinians against endless occupation. But do ends really justify means, at all price, as the praise for Hamas seems to suggest? A closer look to the normative underpinnings of current international law confirms the intuition that this is more than doubtful, as a thorough analysis of the (intensely debated) provisions on the status of movements of national liberation in IHL tells us.
Continue reading >>Warum die Machtübernahme durch die AfD schon früher beginnen könnte, als viele glauben
Erst der Wahlsieg, dann der Griff nach dem höchsten Amt im Parlament: Die AfD könnte die Demokratie in Thüringen im kommenden Jahr auf eine sehr ernste Probe stellen. Aber das Schlimmste ließe sich verhindern – noch.
Continue reading >>Why the AfD Takeover Could Begin Much Sooner Than Many Realize
First the election victory, then the grab for the highest office in parliament: the AfD could put democracy in Thuringia to a very serious test in the coming year. But the worst could be avoided – for now.
Continue reading >>A Borderline Case
On 28 November 2023, Finland decided to close all its land border crossing stations to Russia due to the latter's apparent instrumentalization of migrants. That a foreign power, which conducts war elsewhere in Europe, directly engages in unfriendly acts against the EU’s (as well as NATO’s) eastern flank highlights the issues of national security involved. The situation is part of a broader European dilemma but presents certain idiosyncracies. How is an EU Member State such as Finland, respectful of the rule of law, to respond to such unfriendly acts which intrumentalize the vulnerable position of asylum seekers whose rights must, in principle, be observed at all times? This brief post addresses some of the legal issues involved in the currently unfolding situation.
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Einseitig besetzte Gerichte
In Polen ist die am 15. Oktober gewählte neue Parlamentsmehrheit nicht nur mit einem von der PiS ins Amt gebrachten Staatspräsidenten konfrontiert, der ihr das Leben schwer machen kann, sondern auch mit einem Verfassungsgericht, das inzwischen von lauter unter der Ägide der PiS gewählten Richtern besetzt ist. Die Schwierigkeiten rechtsstaatlicher Bewältigung der Rechtsstaatswidrigkeiten, die sich seit 2010 in der polnischen Justiz und speziell auch beim polnischen Verfassungsgerichtshof aufgetürmt haben, lenken den Blick auf ein zugrundeliegendes Kernproblem, das nicht nur in Polen zu besichtigen ist, und auch sonst nicht nur in Staaten, die von wirklich demokratischen und rechtsstaatlichen Verhältnissen noch oder wieder weit entfernt sind: Das Problem politisch einseitig besetzter Verfassungsgerichte.
Continue reading >>‘Steadfast and Unreserved’
On 24 November 2023, the Barcelona City Council passed a resolution, suspending diplomatic ties with Israel, until a permanent ceasefire is established. While this may not reflect the stance of the Spanish government, it has nevertheless condemned ‘the indiscriminate killing of innocent civilians’. As more EU States (such as Belgium, France, and Ireland) have raised their concerns regarding Israel’s continuous military operations in Gaza, Germany has remained steadfast in its ‘unwavering’ and ‘unreserved’ support for Israel. To the extent that Israel has failed to comply with international humanitarian law (IHL), Germany’s position might amount to a breach of its obligation under common Article 1 (CA1) of the 1949 Geneva Conventions (GC) to ‘ensure respect’ for IHL. While this obligation is incumbent on all States parties to the GC, this post focuses on Germany due to its particularly affirmative position with respect to Israel’s conduct.
Continue reading >>Machado vs. the Goliath Chavista
On October 27, María Corina Machado, was declared the winner of the presidential primary elections organized by the National Commission, a civil society association. With more than 92% of the votes, she has become the new face of the Venezuelan opposition. Despite having popular support, her ability to run for the presidency in 2024 is in doubt. Since June 2023, the political ban she was once subject to in 2015 has been extended for fifteen years, which the Venezuelan Supreme Tribunal of Justice (STJ) confirmed on October 30 following an electoral administrative appeal by the pro-government parliamentarian Brito Rodríguez. This blog details why Machado’s disqualification violates Venezuela’s constitution and should be seen as Maduro’s latest attempt to obstruct the holding of free and fair elections in 2024.
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Dutch Rule of Law Alert
It is never a good sign when Viktor Orbán celebrates the election results of another country. Last Wednesday was one of those days. For the first time in the history of Dutch politics, a far-right party became by far the biggest party in the Dutch parliament. It is bad news in many respects, and even more, because the Dutch constitutional system knows a lack of formal rule of law safeguards. In contrast to countries such as Italy or Germany, the Dutch constitutional system is not prepared for a democratic move to the anti-liberal far right.
Continue reading >>Prize and Premiership
Since the beginning of November, Italy has been discussing a constitutional reform that aims to radically change the Italian governmental system. The bill provides that the Prime Minister (more correctly: the President of the Council of Ministers) is elected by universal suffrage in a popular vote concurrent with the Chamber of Deputies and Senate elections. This move is often referred to in journalism as ‘Premiership’ (Premierato). n this post, I would like to focus less on the characteristics of the alleged ‘Premiership’ and more on the attempt to incorporate detailed electoral rules into the constitution. First, a brief history of the ‘majority prize’ will help the reader to better understand the context in which this reform was born. This will be followed by a critique of the proposal to enshrine the ‘majority prize’ in the constitution. I argue that, as currently drafted, the reform bill risks leading to an unconstitutional constitutional amendment.
Continue reading >>Change for the Sake of Change
On 19 November 2023, Argentinian citizens voted in a run-off election between Sergio Massa, the current Minister of Economy, and Javier Milei, the libertarian candidate, to elect the president of the Republic for the next four years. With a difference of 11%, Milei, an anarcho-libertarian and anti-caste populist, won over the populist alternative of the Peronist apparatus. The result of the elections means that 40 years after the restoration of democracy, the extreme right has come back into power in Argentina. In this blog, we offer an explanation of Milei's electoral win and map how Argentina's constitutional institutions might help reign in some of his more radical proposals.
Continue reading >>When Law Fails Us
The new toughness of migration policy and the loss of the belief that what the law permits and forbids, ultimately still remains significant.
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Wenn das Recht versagt
Die neue Härte in der Migrationspolitik und der Verlust der Überzeugung, dass das, was das Recht erlaubt und verbietet, überhaupt noch wichtig ist.
Continue reading >>The Individual Application Mechanism is on the Verge of Collapse, and so is Turkish Constitutionalism
Turkey is plunged into yet another profound judicial crisis as the Turkish Constitutional Court (TCC) and the Turkish Court of Cassation (Yargıtay) lock horns over the fate of an imprisoned opposition politician. While two earlier posts published on Verfassungsblog have already meticulously dissected this unfolding judicial drama (here and here), we aim to invigorate the debate with a fresh vantage point. In this piece, we will narrow the focus to one key actor: the TCC. More particularly, we will delve into the implications this evolving judicial crisis holds for the future of the TCC's individual application mechanism.
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An Unholy Relic in the Greek Constitution? On the Peculiar Obsolescence of Article 3 para. 3
On a constant basis, church-state relations are a prominent topic in the Greek news. Currently, the new leader of the main opposition party repeatedly emphasizes that he strives to advance “church-state separation.” As far as the desiderata for constitutional reform are concerned, relevant discussions usually centre on Article 3 para. 1 of the Greek Constitution (cited as “Article 3,” but usually referring particularly to Article 3 para. 1), which defines the Orthodox Church as “the prevailing religion in Greece”. Often, yet to a lesser extent, debates focus on Article 16 para. 2, which lists “the development of [...] religious consciousness” as one of the goals of school education. Still rarer, the debates cite Article 105 dealing with the monastic communities of Mount Athos. Surprisingly, Article 3 para. 3 of the Greek Constitution is barely ever brought up in the debates. Yet, precisely this paragraph could – rather uncontroversially – be labelled as utterly peculiar and, above that, obsolete.
Continue reading >>Deregulating Legal Gender in the Shadow of Social Ascription
On 23 August 2023, the German government published a bill on Gender Self-Determination (hereinafter also referred to as SBGG-E). The bill is currently under debate before the German parliament (Bundestag) and is subject to heated socio-political debate. Its primary objective consists of deregulating the conditions for altering and deleting the gender entry provided by the German Civil Status Act. Aside from a strong commitment to deregulating legal gender (Section 1 SBGG-E), the bill sets boundaries and conditions for gender recognition. While some appear self-explanatory, others are infused by what I will hereinafter refer to as the ‘logic of social ascription’.
Continue reading >>Limited Success
On 11.11 Australia and Tuvalu concluded a treaty on establishing the ‘Falepili Union,’ which deals with three pressing matters (art.1): climate change adaptation, collective security, and a new human mobility pathway. Hailed as ‘groundbreaking’, and ‘the most significant Pacific agreement in history,’ the Treaty certainly constitutes a profound step forward in building climate-resilient international relations, especially with its contributions to international migration law and international law on statehood. However, it also falls short in several instances, especially in fully respecting Tuvaluan equality in relation to Australia.
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Why are illiberal monuments legally possible? Some insights from Bosnia and Herzegovina
After unveiling a monument to the genocide denier Peter Handke a few years ago, local authorities in Banja Luka – the largest city of Bosnia’s Serb-dominated Republika Srpska entity – are now building a massive monument to the soldiers of the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS) who died in the war of 1992–95. The memorial site in Banja Luka is not the first dedicated to the VRS. On the contrary, it follows the example of other towns and municipalities in the Serb-dominated areas. Together, they form an illiberal politics of remembrance developed by Bosnia, and especially Republika Srpska, since the end of the war in the 1990s. This memory politics is marked by the denial of war atrocities and the glorification of war criminals. The ongoing construction of the monument in Banja Luka shows that, almost thirty years after the conflict, there is a need to establish a new and comprehensive legal framework for memorialization in Bosnia. In essence, memorialization should be aligned with human rights and enable the development of a democratic culture. To achieve this twofold goal, constitutional and legislative reforms are needed.
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Supreme Judgecraft
In R (on the application of AAA (Syria) and others) the UK Supreme Court held that the Secretary of State’s policy to remove protection seekers to Rwanda was unlawful. Rwanda is not, at present, a safe third country. There are, the Supreme Court found, “substantial grounds for believing that there is a real risk that asylum claims will not be determined properly, and that asylum seekers will in consequence be at risk of being returned directly or indirectly to their country of origin.” Should this occur “refugees will face a real risk of ill-treatment in circumstances where they should not have been returned at all.” We argue that the Supreme Court’s legal reasoning and evidential assessment are both impeccable, applying legal principles that are well-embedded in international and domestic law to very clear evidence. However, the UK government’s responses are deeply troubling, from the perspectives of refugee protection, international legality, and the rule of law in the UK.
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Undermining the Energy Transition
Australia is confronted with three multi-billion dollar investment treaty claims from a mining company. The basis for two of the claims is a judgment from the Queensland Land Court, in which the court recommended that no mining lease and environmental authority should be granted to a subsidiary of the claimant for its coal mine. The investment treaty arbitration serves as another illustration of how the international investment protection system poses a threat to an urgent and just energy transition. In this blog post, I explain the background of the investment treaty claim, the decision of the Queensland Land Court, and argue that the Court’s decision is an important precedent for the connection between coal, climate change, and human rights.
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Magical Thinking and Obsessive Desires
Two days before the UK Supreme Court declared the government’s Rwanda policy unlawful, PM Rishi Sunak rid himself of his Home Secretary, Suella Braverman. The sacking, the ruling, and the aftermath demonstrate both a key division in the Conservative Party and illustrate the choice it faces on the kind of politics it will promote after the next election: socially liberal technocratic nationalism (the Sunak option) or illiberal ‘culture war’ nationalism (the Braverman faction). The Supreme Court’s judgment raises the stakes in this conflict because its grounds for ruling the Rwanda Plan unlawful appear to provide ammunition for the radical illiberal wing of the Conservative Party.
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Wenn Björn Höcke sein Volk befragt
Nach den Landtagswahlen im nächsten Jahr kann ohne die Stimmen der AfD die Thüringer Verfassung womöglich nicht mehr geändert werden. Deshalb sollten jetzt Vorkehrungen getroffen werden – solange das noch möglich ist.
Continue reading >>When Björn Höcke Consults His People
After the state elections next year, the Thuringian constitution probably can't be amended any more without the votes of the AfD. Which is why precautions must be made – as long as that is still possible.
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Defeat in the Supreme Court
On 15 November 2023, the UK Supreme Court (UKSC) unanimously declared the government’s policy of removing some asylum seekers to Rwanda to process their claims unlawful. Like the Court of Appeal, it found substantial grounds for believing that asylum seekers would face a real risk of ill-treatment because of insufficient guarantees against refoulement. This post explores the origin and significance of the UKSC judgment and the legal and policy implications of the UK government’s immediate response to it.
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Is France Desacralizing its Constitution?
From 2002 to the present day, hundreds of constitutional bills have been proposed by delegates in Parliament, with forty of them being introduced within a year following the renewal of the Assemblée Nationale after the 2022 legislative elections. Each bill contains unique and far-reaching provisions. The proposals illustrate a shift within secondary constituent power, which no longer perceives the Constitution as a sacred text, the supreme standard of the French legal order, but as a wish list, and as an object of political communication subject to trivial media considerations.
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Paving the Way to Autocracy?
On November 3, 2023, the Italian Council of Ministers approved a Bill to amend the Constitution, encapsulating what Giorgia Meloni’s Cabinet advertises as a measure to enhance executive stability and streamline policy implementation for medium to long-term objectives. The real goal appears to be cementing the Prime Minister’s grip on power after general elections, as evidenced by the intention to enshrine the majority bonus in the Constitution. Yet, from a constitutional law perspective, the majority bonus raises a fundamental issue related to how the Italian Constitutional Court interprets the eternity clause in the Constitution.
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Between Recalibration and Distortion
In its current form, the project to change the form of government that the Italian government headed by Ms Giorgia Meloni is preparing to present to the Senate seems difficult to accept. The project claims to address the issue of unstable and short-term cabinets in Italy (65 in 75 years, one every 12 months from 1948 through 1994 when a new electoral law was applied; still one every 21 months thereafter). Unfortunately, it is both poorly drafted and contains contradictions that make it not only impracticable but of dubious functionality with respect to the very objectives it proposes to achieve. However, as it has been decades since the problem the draft says it wants to tackle has been acknowledged, I shall assume its proponents' good intentions and suugest how the text could be improved. Below I briefly describe the project, trace its distant and recent origins, indicate what it is lacking and how it should be changed.
Continue reading >>Biden, Bletchley, and the emerging international law of AI
Everyone talks about AI at the moment. Biden issues an Executive Order while the EU hammers out its AI Act, and world and tech leaders meet in the UK to discuss AI. The significance of Biden’s Executive Order can therefore only be understood when taking a step back and considering the growing global AI regulatory landscape. In this blogpost, I argue that an international law of AI is slowly starting to emerge, pushing countries to adopt their own position on this technology in the international regulatory arena, before others do so for them. Biden’s Executive Order should hence be read with exactly this purpose in mind.
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Downhill All The Way
On November 8th, the 3rd Criminal Chamber of Turkey's Court of Cassation, the nation's apex court for civil and criminal matters, defied the Constitutional Court (the TCC) and explicitly accused it of engaging in “judicial activism.” The judicial feud between the two high courts stemmed from the individual application of Can Atalay, an opposition MP from the Workers Party of Turkey (TİP), challenging his ongoing imprisonment despite obtaining parliamentary immunity in the May 2023 elections. Indeed, the 3rd Chamber's wholly ungrounded defiance is a failure of the constitutional order, illustrating how the Constitution no longer serves its core function of authoritatively channeling, restraining, and organizing state power. However, the Atalay controversy is neither unprecedented nor a true turning point in Turkey's ailing democracy—it is just another symptom of a deepening dysfunction.
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A Frozen Constitution in a Sunburnt Country
Australia’s Constitution remains frozen, with the loss of a referendum on 14 October 2023. Only eight out of forty-five national referendums to amend the Constitution have succeeded, with no successful change since 1977. The 2023 referendum would have recognised Indigenous Australians in the national Constitution and provided a means, described as a ‘Voice’, for them to make representations to Parliament and the Executive Government on matters relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. In this post, I will seek to give an overview of the reasons for the failure of the referendum, including the ‘No’ arguments, factors that contributed to the ‘No’ vote, and the demographics of the voting outcome.
Continue reading >>The Rule of Arbitrariness as the New Constitutional Order in Turkey
Nearly two weeks after the 100th-anniversary celebrations of the Republic, Turkey's constitutional order faced one of the most significant judicial crises in its history when the Court of Cassation, the highest court of ordinary jurisdiction, and the Turkish Constitutional Court (TCC) clashed over the fate of imprisoned opposition politician Can Atalay. How should we interpret this constitutional crisis? Is it the death of constitutionalism in Turkey? Is it an attempt to test the boundaries of legitimacy before establishing the rules of a new constitutional order?
Continue reading >>Offshoring Asylum the Italian Way
On 6 November 2023, the Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni and the Prime Minister of Albania Edi Rama announced the signing of the Agreement for Strengthening of Collaboration in the Field of Migration. The agreement proposes a relocation of asylum seekers who are rescued at sea by Italian vessels to two centres that would be built in Albania and could host up to 3’000 people. This is part of a broader trend whereby European governments seek to move asylum procedures outside of their territory. At the same time, the agreement contains some innovations compared to previous proposals. Indeed, this move has been hailed as a “model and example for other collaboration agreements of this kind” by the Italian Prime Minister. This article contends that this is unlikely to be the case: the legality and feasibility of offshoring asylum procedures remain dubious at best.
Continue reading >>Looking at Berlin, Ending up on Capitol Hill
On 3 November 2023, the Italian Council of Ministers approved a constitutional reform bill to introduce the direct election of the Prime Minister in Italy. The reform would grant the Prime Minister significantly broader powers than those currently outlined in the Constitution. The proposal is now set to be evaluated by the Italian Parliament, and possibly submitted to a popular referendum if it is not approved by two-thirds of the members of both chambers. While it claims to ensure the continuity of governments – a known weak point of the Italian political system - it undermines the very foundation of parliamentary representation: the party system. Breathing the spirit of plebiscitary populism, this misguided reform, while seemingly looking towards Berlin for inspiration, risks in a worst-case scenario creating an atmosphere reminiscent of Capitol Hill on a fateful day a few years ago.
Continue reading >>A Primer on the UK Online Safety Act
The Online Safety Act (OSA) has now become law, marking a significant milestone in platform regulation in the United Kingdom. The OSA introduces fresh obligations for technology firms to address illegal online content and activities, covering child sexual exploitation, fraud, and terrorism, adding the UK to the array of jurisdictions that have recently introduced new online safety and platform accountability regulations. However, the OSA is notably short on specifics. In this post, we dissect key aspects of the OSA structure and draw comparisons with similar legislation, including the EU Digital Services Act (DSA).
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A Second Term for “the World’s coolest Dictator”?
On October 26, Nayib Bukele, current President of the Republic of El Salvador, officially registered his candidacy for the presidency. This is in clear violation of El Salvador’s Constitution which prohibits the renewed, consecutive candidacy of a sitting president. In the "Western" media, Bukele has mostly made the news for establishing "mega-prisons" and conducting mass arrests under his watch. In this blogpost, I highlight the political moves that Bukele has made to legitimize his rule and methods, including his repeated extension of El Salvador’s state of emergency and his capture of the Constitutional Chamber. Together with his renewed candidacy, his rule has destroyed El Salvador’s adherence to its own constitutional framework.
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Voting To Annex?
On December 3, Venezuelans will vote in a referendum on the annexation of Esequibo to the territory of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. This blog post argues that the referendum has implications for both domestic constitutional law and international law. Since the referendum cannot have any practical effect under international law, it also violates the voters’ constitutional right to participate freely in public affairs. By prioritizing solely the interests of Venezuela over the sovereignty of Guyana, the referendum might be contrary to the principles of peaceful dispute settlement and the prohibition of force, as stipulated in the United Nations Charter. It could also challenge the established legal doctrine of state consent and infringe upon the principle of prioritizing international obligations over national law.
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Europe and the Global Race to Regulate AI
The EU wants to set the global rule book for AI. This blog explains the complex “risk hierarchy” that pervades the proposed AI Act, currently in the final stages of trilogue negotiation. This contrasts with the US focus on “national security risks”. We point out shortcomings of the EU approach requiring comprehensive risk assessments (ex ante), at the level of technology development. Using economic analysis, we distinguish exogenous and endogenous sources of potential AI harm arising from input data. We are sceptical that legislators can anticipate the future of a general purpose technology, such as AI. We propose that from the perspective of encouraging ongoing innovation, (ex post) liability rules can provide the right incentives to improve data quality and AI safety.
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We Don’t Need No Education?
Artificial Intelligence doesn't know what's 'true'. Especially, generative AI models like chatbots veer from the truth, i.e. “hallucinate”, quite regularly. Chatbots simply invent information at least 3 percent of the time and sometimes as high as 27 percent. Given the (future) use of such systems in nearly all domains, we might want such systems to follow more stringent rules of accuracy. And those truth-related rules are not the only rules for AI systems that warrant societal scrutiny. How those systems are trained will be crucial. In this blog post, we argue that a new perspective is key to tackle this challenge: “Hybrid Speech Governance”.
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How the War in Gaza May Upend Israel’s Constitutional Limbo
The war in Gaza serves, this blog post argues, as the final nail in the coffin of Netanyahu's judicial overhaul. The Israeli political climate, relentless opposition and the political fallout after Hamas' surprise attack on Israel and the current war thwarted the judicial overhaul. However, populism is far from overcome. Therefore, the current failed judicial overhaul remains a warning sign for the democracy-seeking public in Israel and should raise demand for constitutional entrenchment of the democratic values of the Israeli state. As the judicial overhaul of 2023 has shown us – democracy is not safe if it hangs by the thread of a simple majority in parliament.
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Bekenntnisdruck
Robert Habecks Rede und die "hier lebenden Muslime"
Continue reading >>Defusing an Atomic Bomb
The sigh of relief was audible throughout Europe. In Brussels and other European capitals, the victory of the opposition bloc in the Polish elections sparked hope that the imminent change in government would end the illiberal course of the past. While years of democratic backsliding have left lasting marks on Poland’s political and legal landscape, the newly elected government is clearly committed to leading Poland back onto the path of democracy and the rule of law. However, one pertinent institutional issue remains to be resolved: the still pending procedure against Poland under Art 7 TEU.
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The Right To Die Like The Trees: Standing
My name is dr. Dániel András Karsai. I am a human rights attorney. I am also terminally ill. In August 2022, I was diagnosed with ALS. ALS is a so-called motor neurone disease. ALS leads to an extremely humiliating life situation, increasingly depriving you of independence. For reasons unknown to medical science, this disease causes nerve cells that move the muscles to deteriorate, leading to muscle atrophy and ultimately complete paralysis. At the end of the disease, respiratory functions also cease, resulting in death by asphyxiation. The final stage of the disease is virtually a vegetative existence, without any possibility of conscious activity or communication. For me, this form of existence is devoid of all meaning and dignity. In this situation, I firmly believe in the arguable claim to demand the right to end my life with dignity instead of enduring meaningless suffering.
Continue reading >>Fighting Impunity Through Intermediaries
The 24th of February 2022 lastingly altered Europe’s security architecture. The European Union and its member states have continued to support Ukraine in a multitude of ways, including direct financial assistance, political support in relevant international fora, far-reaching sanctions against Russian citizens and businesses, and massive arms supplies. What has, however, remained ambiguous is within which (legal) framework the EU has provided different means of support towards Ukraine. In other words: what legal principle – that may also be derived from its treaty framework – determined and guided EU support towards Ukraine? This contribution argues that at least certain streams of EU assistance for Ukraine in countering the Russian Federation’s aggression – namely those aimed at ending impunity for international crimes – have been organized within a distinct rule of law context.
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Regulating Political Advertising
The issue of financing political campaigns has been a topic of discussion for a while, especially against the background of the ongoing deliberations within the EU surrounding the adoption of the draft Political Advertisement Act (PAA). The recently concluded Polish parliamentary campaign and the assistance offered by State Owned Companies, along with the weak level of oversight on these actions, have highlighted certain shortcomings in the proposed framework that remain unaddressed in the current EU draft legislation. In particular, I argue that the PAA does not adequately regulate the methods and extent of financing for political campaigns such as microtargeting and mistakenly assumes the independence of regulatory bodies tasked with enforcing its requirements. An independent institutional system warranted by the European Commission to enforce the proposed rules is pivotal for PAA to achieve its goals.
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Hamas’ Atrocities, Israel’s Response, and the Primacy of International Law to Protect Civilians
In light of the atrocities committed by Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad fighters in Israel on October 7, 2023 and the days thereafter, and against the backdrop of Germany’s historical responsibility, the German government and German politicians have unanimously expressed solidarity with Israel and emphasized its right to self-defense. Following the October 17, 2023 call by Kai Ambos for a differentiated debate, we explain which international humanitarian law precautions are relevant and what German policy can contribute to contain the escalation of violence as well as the suffering of the civilian population in the immediate conflict and in the future.
Continue reading >>Strasburg Weighs In On Political Persecution In Turkey
In a pivotal judgment delivered by the Grand Chamber, the European Court of Human Rights held that the conviction of a former teacher Yüksel Yalcinkaya violated Articles 6,7 and 11 of the Convention. The applicant Yalcinkaya was a teacher who was dismissed with an emergency decree enacted during the state of emergency rule between 2016 and 2018 and was subsequently prosecuted and convicted for his use of the ByLock app and for his membership in a teachers’ union and an association which were also closed down with an emergency decree. In Erdogan’s ever more repressive Turkey, usage of said app or membership in organizations and unions may lead to arrest. Especially anything that appears remotely related to the oppositional Gulen movement carries the risk of persecution.
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Justifying a Political Dynasty
The Indonesian Constitutional Court has handed down a highly controversial decision lowering the minimum age requirement for presidential candidacy. It raises further alarms about the Court's independence, as the petitioner sought to allow President Jokowi's son, Gibran Rakabuming Raka, to run in the 2024 presidential elections. Worse, the current Chief Justice is married to the President's younger sister, and the Court's legal reasoning it not sound.
Continue reading >>Turning the Exception into the Rule
In January 2023, Italy’s new government adopted a reform that heavily curtailed immigrant rights to speed up return procedures. Between September and October, several judgments issued by the Catania Tribunal declared the reform in violation of EU law. The judgments led to backlash, with PM Meloni and other members of the government accusing them of being politically motivated. While such political attacks on judges must always be condemned, they are particularly unwarranted given that the Catania Tribunal’s judges were correct in finding the new Italian border procedures incompatible with EU law.
Continue reading >>To Hell, on a White Horse
Slovakia voted on the final day of September 2023. The electoral rhetoric, results and subsequent coalition-building give grounds to expect illiberal constitutional changes. More attention is needed towards the Constitutional Court’s capacity to resist such illiberalization, as Slovakia may join Hungary in a revamped illiberal Visegrad alliance.
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Trapped in Gaza
Thousands of Palestinians are amassed at the Rafah border crossing into Egypt – the only land border point from Gaza that is not controlled by Israel. Periodically opened by Egypt to allow at least some aid convoys to enter Gaza, it has been firmly closed to Palestinians seeking to leave Gaza since October 10. Both international refugee and human rights law that bind Egypt make clear that its closure of the Rafah border crossing to all Palestinians – including to those at grave and imminent risk – is an illegal act of refoulement. In this case, it has proved to be an illegal act with truly deadly consequences and must be condemned as such.
Continue reading >>The Mexican Standoff
In a historical march, tens of thousands of judicial staff, lawyers, and judges – including at least one justice of the Supreme Court – took to the streets of Mexico City on 22 October 2023. Chanting slogans such as ‘¡El Poder Judicial de la Federación no se toca!’ and ‘¡Somos los garantes de la Constitución!’ protesters rallied against the Mexican government’s plans to slash the federal judiciary’s (Poder Judicial de la Federación, PJF) funding. In this contribution, we analyse what this dispute is all about and explain why the government’s plans jeopardise the independence of the Mexican judiciary. In particular, we argue that the recent, seemingly innocent financial measures come at the cusp of an alarming authoritarian turn. Finally, we offer some tentative thoughts on what the endgame in this quickly escalating dispute might look like.
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Politisches Microtargeting vs. Rechtsaufsicht
In der letzten Woche ist bekannt geworden, dass die EU-Kommission, konkret der amtliche Account der Kommissarin für Inneres, Microtargeting auf X (vormals Twitter) nutzte, um Schwung in ein festgefahrenes Gesetzgebungsvorhaben zu bringen. Es handelt sich um eine gezielte Beeinflussung der gesellschaftlichen Debatte rund um die sogenannte „Kinderschutzverordnung“, auch bekannt als „Chatkontrolle“ durch datenbasierte Zielgruppenansprache (zur Berichterstattung und Analyse). Diese Posts sollten Druck auf mitgliedsstaatliche Regierungen ausüben, um doch noch eine Mehrheit für das Vorhaben zu beschaffen. Dieser Vorgang ist auch abseits der inhaltlichen Debatte um die „Chatkontrolle“ bemerkenswert, schließlich zeigt er neben den systemischen Risiken von Plattformen und dem Bedürfnis nach effektiver Durchsetzung von Plattformregulierung auf, dass die Kommission sich in einem Spannungsverhältnis der Funktionen als Aufsichtsbehörde und als politische Akteurin befindet und somit das systeminhärente Risiko besteht, dass sie ihre Funktion als Aufsichtsbehörde zugunsten politischer Ziele vernachlässigt.
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Who Decides What Counts as Disinformation in the EU?
Who decides what counts as “disinformation” in the EU? Not public authorities, because disinformation is not directly sanctioned in the Digital Service Act (DSA) or other secondary legislation. Nor Very Large Online Platforms (VLOPs) and Very Large Online Search Engines (VLOSes), which avoid editorial decisions to maintain their legal status as intermediaries with limited liability. Instead, the delicate task of identifying disinformation is being undertaken by other private organisations whose place of administration and activity, purpose, funding and organizational structure appear problematic in terms of the legitimacy and even legality of the fight against disinformation. This blog post maps out the relevant (private) actors, namely the ad industry, fact checking organizations and so-called source-raters.
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Who Speaks on Behalf of the European Union?
“It’s a cacophony. It’s ridiculous”. This is how an EU diplomat described the flow of EU statements following the outbreak of the war between Israel and Hamas. The divergent reactions reveal the existence of institutional tensions about the Union’s external representation, which undermine the coherence and credibility of the EU’s external action. The war between Israel and Hamas concerns issues of foreign and security policy. Whether one likes it or not, this is an area where the Commission has a more limited role – also with respect to external representation. A certain restraint or, at the very least, closer coordination with the Member States and the European External Action Service could have been expected.
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When Discrimination is Not Enough
The Supreme Court, India’s apex constitutional court, recently delivered its disappointing decision in Supriyo Chakraborty v Union India (Supriyo), rejecting marriage equality in Indian law. The much-awaited decision was heard by a constitution bench (five judges) of the Supreme Court and dealt with far-reaching questions of both Indian constitutional law and family law. The decision is characteristic of the Indian Supreme Court’s ongoing phase of great deference to the executive and legislative branches but also marks a sharp and worrying break from the court’s otherwise progressive jurisprudence on issues of gender and sexuality.
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The Basic Structure Doctrine, Article 370 and the Future of India’s Democracy
A constitution bench (five-judges) of the Supreme Court of India recently concluded the hearings related to the the abrogation of Article 370 of the Constitution and the bifurcation of the State of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) into two Union Territories. How the Supreme Court finally decides this instant case will have far-reaching constitutional implications. In particular, the basic structure challenge pressed upon by the Petitioners, is likely to determine the future of India’s democratic federal architecture and the structural balance of power between the Union and states.
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Moral Absolutism in the Wake of Terrorism
In the light of the terrorist attack perpetrated by Hamas against innocent civilians in Israel on October 7th, some contend that “The imperative to protect human dignity only applies absolutely if it applies universally, and it only applies universally if it applies absolutely.” In the face of evil, there is no room for relativism. Hamas’s deliberate attack against innocent civilians is absolutely wrong. Therefore, it should be universally condemned. I agree with the above conclusion. However, I wonder how a universal recognition of an absolute duty of respect for human dignity can help solving the existential conflict confronting Israelis and Palestinians. Ideally, a two-state solution proposed by the international community can be seen as a reasonable and fair compromise. Nevertheless, the reality on the ground is different. This blog post explores the downstream consequences - and hurdles - of moral absolutism in times of war, terror, and existential crisis.
Continue reading >>Restoring Poland’s Media Freedom
Over the last ten years, PiS has not only systematically dismantled Poland’s rule of law, but also strategically corroded the country’s media freedom. It has successfully politicized Poland’s media regulators, abused public service media for propaganda purposes, captured private media outlets and supported friendly private media, and created regulatory, legal and political obstacles for private media which criticized it. In this blogpost, I will detail three core steps that must be taken to restore media freedom in Poland in conformity with European standards. In particular, I argue for the restoration of the National Broadcasting Council (KRRiT), the constitutional media regulator, as an independent body; the dissolution of the „bonus” media regulator introduced by PiS, the National Media Council; and for reforming the status of Poland’s private media and the government’s approach to the media in general.
Continue reading >>Post-populist Populism
Good news for democracy from Poland? It appears that in the recent general elections, the right-wing populist Law and Justice party (PiS), won most seats but not enough to allow it to form a coalition. Donald Tusk's Civic Coalition has a better chance of forming a coalition, which might put an end to PiS' eight years of rule. This, prima facie, seems like a victory of democracy over populism. While this is certainly true, in this post we wish to flag certain warning signs that this possible democratic rotation is not the end of the struggle for democracy but merely the beginning of this process. This is because even when populists are voted out of office, their legacy - at least partially - persists.
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Using the Constitution for Partisan Benefits
Last month, the Indian parliament passed the 106th amendment to the Constitution. It inserted several provisions to the Indian Constitution, collectively providing for horizontal reservation of one-third of directly elected seats of the House of the People, the state legislative assemblies, and the Delhi legislative assembly for women. In this blog, I discuss the political motivations underlying the enactment of this amendment and argue that this amendment is an opportunistic attempt by the incumbent government to reap partisan benefits using the Constitution before the upcoming state and general elections. Such actions demystify the idea that constitutions are a place for high-order politics. The amendment shows that with enough numbers, constitutions could easily be reduced into a political tool for furthering dominant political interests.
Continue reading >>At a Snail’s Pace
By 1 April 2018, member states had to transpose an EU Directive on ‘the strengthening of certain aspects of the presumption of innocence and of the right to be present at the trial in criminal proceedings’. Bulgaria has not fully transposed it to this day, and consistently undermines it. Now, finally, the Commission has launched infringement proceecings. Preceding the announcement, the Commission rejected Rasosveta Vassileva's reasoned complaints on the same issue, as late as 2022. Her odyssey is a concerning tale on how EU institutions handle citizen alerts.
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A Step Forward in Fighting Online Antisemitism
Online antisemitism is on the rise. Especially since the recent terror attack by Hamas in Southern Israel, platforms like X are (mis)used to propel antisemitism. Against this backdrop, this blog post analyses the legal framework for combatting online antisemitism in the EU and the regulatory approaches taken so far. It addresses the new Digital Services Act (DSA), highlighting some of the provisions that might become particularly important in the fight against antisemitism. The DSA improves protection against online hate speech in general and antisemitism in particular by introducing procedural and transparency obligations. However, it does not provide any substantive standards against which the illegality of such manifestations can be assessed. In order to effectively reduce online antisemitism in Europe, we need to think further, as outlined in the following blog post.
Continue reading >>Solidarity with Israel, but no Blank Check
The actions of Hamas have been called in a detailed declaration drafted by Israeli international lawyers, also signed by this author, for what they are: core crimes under international law, possibly even amounting to genocide directed against the Jewish population of Israel. This should be beyond dispute among international (criminal) lawyers. Nonetheless, especially in Germany we have to critically ask ourselves the follow-up question of how far our support for Israel’s military counterattack can go.
Continue reading >>Zwischen Symbolpolitik und Verschärfung
Vergangene Woche verständigte sich die Regierungskoalition auf ein Maßnahmenpaket zur Reform des Asylrechts, das medial vielfach unter dem Topos „schnellere Abschiebungen“ diskutiert wurde (siehe hier und hier). Die Änderungsvorschläge zeigen im Detail jedoch in sehr verschiedene Richtungen und enthalten sowohl Verschärfungen als auch punktuelle Erleichterungen. In Teilen sind sie rein symbolpolitischer Natur, enthalten aber auch spürbare Verschärfungen gegenüber Schutzsuchenden. Dabei simulieren die Vorschläge allerdings nur politische Handlungsfähigkeit und drohen gerade dadurch die Wahrnehmung politischer Lähmung zu verstärken.
Continue reading >>What is Permissible in the War against Hamas?
What is permissible for the Israeli government to do in response to the murderous attack by Hamas? The answer to this is difficult, not only because blood is boiling and hearts are broken, but also because there is a complex moral dilemma here. In this blog, we hope to offer some guidelines to clarify the issue. We do not claim to provide definitive answers. The required analysis is complex, and it is incumbent upon the Israeli government and the IDF to ensure that the various steps taken are morally justified.
Continue reading >>Degrees of (In)Dependence
For years, there has been a debate about making the Polish Prosecutor's Office an authority that is arguably located between the classic uniformed services (the police), public administration (tax offices), and the judiciary. In Polish scholarly discourse, two positions prevail regarding the place of the prosecutor's office in the system of state organs - subordination to the executive, or quasi-independence based on an organic statute with the strong influence of parliament. In this blog, I will explain how PiS has exploited Poland's adoption of the former model, and evaluate the promise and perils of a proposal to cure the current defects by rendering Poland's prosecutor's office (more) independent.
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Market Power, Democracy and (Un)Fair Elections
In the last eight years Poland experienced an illiberal shift. Key elements of constitutional democracy were undermined. The story is well-known to public law scholars, particularly with respect to judicial reforms. However, off most people’s radar have been the changes which increased the role of state-controlled and state-owned firms (SOEs) in the Polish economy which have supported Poland’s illiberal tendencies. Pre-election period is illustrative in this respect, with the ruling majority benefitting from various kinds of support from SOEs which undermined a level playing field. The Polish experience arguably sheds light on constitutional democracies’ weaknesses in effectively addressing the links between political and market power which can further democratic backsliding. In this blogpost, I will highlight why the existing legal framework, in particular remedies available in law aimed at imposing limits on the use of market power, i.e. competition law, are insufficient to address this risk and why a broader debate in public law is necessary in this respect.
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Menschenwürde
Unsere redaktionelle Richtschnur im Umgang mit dem Massaker durch die Hamas und seinen Folgen
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Human Dignity
The guiding principle of our editorial decisions in dealing with the massacre by the Hamas and its aftermath
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Food Culture and the Far-Right
Dis-moi ce que tu manges, je te dirai ce que tu es. Brillat-Savarin’s words describe how what we eat and how we prepare it forms part of our identity. The Bolognese tortellini, the Swabian Spätzle and the Polish Łazanki are very much different from one another. What they have in common, however, is that they do not represent merely a dish, but an essential part of regional heritages. Under the nationalist slogan of 'food sovereignty', the Italian government presents itself as the protector of Italian culinary identity with a ban on cultivated meat. From an EU law perspective, the ban is a largely ineffective ‘talk show law’. Nevertheless, it puts on the table the politics underlying food regulation and the room left for national differentiation within harmonised areas of the internal market.
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The Great Yes or the Great No
As we gear up for the most consequential elections in Poland since 1989, the situation on the ground after 8 years of the paranoid polarizing and no-holds-barred politics, forces all those concerned about the future, to ask where Poland is heading. On 14 October 2023, we must understand that POLEXIT is much more than a mere dispute over institutions, rule of law, judicial independence, etc. What is at stake now is incomparably greater. It is the defense of a certain way of life, values and belonging to a community of law and values, a civic Poland in Europe and Europe in civic Poland and finally of “Me and You” as part of Europe.
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Obstinate Choices
Denmark is currently going through a full-blown intelligence scandal. It includes charges of illegal activity lodged by the Danish Intelligence Oversight Board (TET) against the Danish foreign intelligence service (FE), as well as a range of criminal cases brought against the former head of FE, a former minister of defence, and a former intelligence officer on charges of leaking classified information. In this post, I argue that these scandals can best be understood through the lens of a series of obstinate choices made by the Danish government and its representatives. Seemingly, because key decision-makers lacked trust and got fed up with leaks, the situation was handled aggressively from the start, as a matter of principle. I explain the complex scandal but focus on specifics only in the case against former minister of defence, Claus Hjort Frederiksen, as his case is the most clear-cut and observable for outsiders.
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The Distorted Body
Ensuring the integrity of elections is a foundational concern for any democratic state. Yet, it faces a grave challenge in Poland, emanating from the Chamber of Extraordinary Control and Public Affairs of the Supreme Court. Created in 2018 following controversial changes to the national judicial system and tasked with reviewing the validity of parliamentary elections, the Chamber fails to meet the essential criteria of an independent court. Confirmed by rulings of the European Court of Human Rights and the Supreme Court itself, the Chamber’s flawed origin and staffing, dependent on political influence and in departure from established rules of law, undermines its capacity to authenticate the fairness and legitimacy of elections. This echoes beyond Poland’s borders as well, since the Chamber’s defective status fails to meet European standards of effective judicial protection, thus raising concerns in the context of European integration. This blog delves into the Chamber’s position, examines its role in validating electoral process and its impact on the democratic legitimacy of Poland’s Parliament.
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Reviving a Corpse
The political co-optation of the Constitutional Tribunal has eliminated its role in Poland’s checks and balances. The judges, although associated with the ruling party, are conflicted and some of them refuse to rule, the number of proceedings has fallen dramatically, and the Tribunal's authority has all but disappeared. It is not enough now to pick it up, shake it off, straighten it out, and put it back to where it was in 2015. Instead, if the opposition wins the election, it must rebuild an institution that is both an effective constitutional player, capable of checking the government and a trustworthy and reliable avenue for Polish citizens to assert their constitutional complaints.
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To Void or Not To Void
One of the most critical challenges in the process of restoring the rule of law in Poland after the period of ‘Law and Justice’ rule will be regulating the situation in the Constitutional Tribunal. After the unlawful election of three judges by the Sejm in November 2015 and the subsequent recognition of their judicial status by the new President of the Constitutional Tribunal, Julia Przyłębska, the Constitutional Tribunal lost its independence and authority. Instead of defending the Constitution and the rule of law, the Constitutional Tribunal often legitimizes controversial Government actions and openly questions the European standards. Rebuilding the Constitutional Tribunal's authority and restoring its proper functioning will undoubtedly be a challenging task. It must involve at least two actions: firstly, the removal of improperly elected individuals from adjudication and secondly, the regulation of the consequences of their judgments. In the following brief text, I will specifically address the latter issue, based on the report published by the Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights in June 2023.
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A Hidden Success
Following the EU General Court’s dismissal of the complaint of WS and other asylum seekers against Frontex in its ruling on September 6, 2023, scholarly commentary has largely expressed disappointment. However, a more optimistic way of reading the judgement is also possible. By declaring the lawsuit admissible, the court confirmed that factual misconduct by Frontex can be addressed with action for damages claims – and this in itself is a major step forward in the system of fundamental rights protection in the European Union.
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Ruling by Bullying?
On September 8th, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals of the United States partially upheld a decision that found several public officials had coerced social media companies into censoring speech protected by the First Amendment. Americans call this area of the law jawboning, in reference to the jawbone that is moved when we talk, which is the mechanism through which pressures of these sorts are exerted. It is an extremely complex area of law, in part because distinguishing when public officials cross that fuzzy legal line depends on assessing the nature actions that happen in private settings in light of vague and ambiguous criteria. In this piece, I explain why the occurrence of jawboning might be an inevitable feature of modern administrative governance, and outline both the unique challenge that underpins any attempt to legally regulate it as well as the urgency of doing so.
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Judicial Transitology
The rule of law crisis in Poland consists of several elements – undermining the independence of courts, politicization of disciplinary proceedings against judges, and lack of legal certainty. None of them, however, raises so many doubts and concerns as the status of judges appointed or promoted upon the request of the politically captured National Council of Judiciary (NCJ). In this blog post, we analyse the diverse composition of the group of judges appointed or promoted upon the motion of the NCJ from 2018. We also discuss the relevant jurisprudence of national and international courts and the current state of debate concerning this problem and possible solutions.
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The Election’s Aftermath
Reenergized by the former liberal prime minister and EUCO president Donald Tusk, Poland’s democratic forces are well positioned to deliver a stunning upset on Sunday. If this indeed materializes, we must resist the temptation to think of the critical post-election days and weeks as a regular democratic transfer of power. Instead, what will happen should be understood as an inherently perilous collapse of an authoritarian regime. Several legal and constitutional provisions are capable of being weaponized by the ruling PiS party to thwart the peaceful transfer of power.
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The French Republic’s (In)Divisibility
On Thursday 28 September 2023, French President Emmanuel Macron called, in front of the Corsican Assembly, for Corsica to be given ‘autonomy within the Republic’. The French government and Corsican elected representatives have six months to produce a text which, if approved by the Corsican Assembly, will serve as the basis for an amendment to the French Constitution. Nonetheless, the political reactivation of an old constitutional principle might get in the way. In particular, conservative parliamentarians can be expected to invoke the principle of the indivisibility of the Republic in the constitutional amendment process. Despite the principle’s long-standing presence in republican constitutional history, we argue that it cannot serve as a constitutional argument against Corsican autonomy, both because the Constitution allows amendments despite contradictory principles and because it has always tolerated a certain degree of divisibility.
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Poland’s Sham ‘Migration’ Referendum
On June 15, 2023, Jarosław Kaczyński, leader of Poland's PiS party, announced a rare referendum, ostensibly to allow the public to weigh in on crucial elements of Polish immigration policy, alongside the general elections. Yet, in reality, the referendum had little to do with migration and the opposition parties largely ignored the referendum's questions to avoid its deployment as an electoral campaign tool. As such, whatever voters will decide on Election day, it will tell us little about the state of Polish migration politics.
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Europe’s Sick Success Child
Poland's rule of law crisis, spurred by the ruling coalition under Jarosław Kaczyński, has caused severe damage to its legal system and democratic foundations. The European Union has responded with infringement proceedings and withholding of funds, leading to some concessions from the Polish government. Yet, Poland's legal community and civil society have shown resilience, challenging these attacks in courts, advocating for democratic values, and maintaining a robust private media. As parliamentary elections loom, the question arises: can this resilience lead to a restoration of the rule of law?
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Open letter from Israeli international law experts
The taking of hostages is a blatant violation of international law. We call for the immediate and unconditional release of all hostages. Pending their release, they are all entitled to be treated with humanity and respect. This includes the receipt of proper medical care and supply of essential medication for those who need it, and the provision of information regarding the hostages and means of communication with them. We call upon the international community, including all states and relevant international organizations to pressure those holding the hostages to release them all immediately.
Continue reading >>Die Würde der Überstimmten
Warum und worüber Viktor Orbán grinst
Continue reading >>Slicing Away at Regulatory Statutes
In its June 2023 decision in Sackett v. EPA, the U.S. Supreme Court interpreted the Clean Water Act of 1972 to significantly cut back its water pollution protections and to hand an important victory to private property owners. Sackett is not simply important for its impact on environmental protection. Although it may be among the Court’s less visible recent rulings, it follows the Court’s trend of anti-administrativist rulings and may add importantly to the Court’s kit of anti-regulatory interpretive tools.
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Automated Decision-Making and the Challenge of Implementing Existing Laws
Who loves the latest shiny thing? Children maybe? Depends on the kid. Cats and dogs perhaps? Again, probably depends. What about funders, publishers, and researchers? Now that is an easier question to answer. Whether in talks provided by the tax-exempt ‘cult of TED’, or in open letters calling for a moratorium, the attention digital technologies receive today is extensive, especially those that are labelled ‘artificial intelligence’. This noise comes with calls for a new ad hoc human right against being subject to automated decision-making (ADM). While there is merit in adopting new laws dedicated to so-called AI, the procedural mechanisms that can implement existing law require strengthening. The perceived need for new substantive rules to govern new technology is questionable at best, and distracting at worst. Here we would like to emphasise the importance of implementing existing law more effectively in order to better regulate ADM. Improving procedural capacities across the legal frameworks on data protection, non-discrimination, and human rights is imperative in this regard.
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The Constitution Does Not Sleep
The South Korean government is embarking on a process to amend the current Assembly Act with the aim of enforcing stricter regulations on assemblies and demonstrations. Among other things, demonstrations at night are to be generally prohibited. I argue that the legislator’s plans disregard the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court and fail to comply with standards of international law.
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Constitutional Pluralism and Article 370
Recently, the Indian Supreme Court finished hearing oral arguments on a batch of petitions challenging the constitutional validity of The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 2019 which extended all provisions of the Indian Constitution to Jammu and Kashmir. In the midst of the arguments, the Court pondered upon the nature of the relationship between the Constitution of India and the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. While the Court is unlikely to hand down an authoritative ruling on this relationship, the exchanges between the judges and lawyers offer us a valuable avenue to explore. By analysing the Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly Debates, this piece examines the nature of the relationship envisaged by the two constitutions. I argue that the constitutional principle that undergirded the previously existing constitutional relationship between India and Jammu and Kashmir is heterarchy.
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The Comeback of the Mixed Chamber
Three years ago, in the wake of the Weiss judgment of the German Federal Constitutional Court, we proposed the creation of a “Mixed Chamber” in the Court of Justice of the European Union, to rule in last instance on judicial disputes on points of Union competence. The rationale of a Chamber so composed is not obvious. After all, in a Union in which EU Law has primacy over national law, in which the autonomy of EU law is all-pervasive and where the Court of Justice is the ultimate interpreter of EU law, why should a Mixed Chamber be needed? We believe there are at least three good reasons that make a Mixed Chamber as salient as ever.
Continue reading >>Europe’s Faustian Bargain
On Thursday, news broke that the German government had agreed to incorporating the previously rejected Crisis Regulation into the EU’s new asylum and migration pact. The decision was a radical change of course since Germany had previously consistently opposed its inclusion. Framed as allowing for more ‘flexibility’ in case of migratory surges, the Crisis Regulation’s adoption will, in effect, suspend the EU asylum system as we know it for the time being, given that recorded sea arrivals are currently nearing the 2015 levels. A crisis in need of regulation, if you will. In this blogpost, I highlight the dangerous fallacy that underpins our tolerance for the illegality that has come to characterize contemporary border control. In particular, our failure to oppose the constant expansion of the limits of the law that occurs in the name of crisis and political necessity rests on the mistaken assumption that we have nothing to lose in this race to the bottom.
Continue reading >>False Hope for Democracy in Bosnia & Herzegovina
Bosnia & Herzegovina (B&H) is notoriously hard to govern. Scarred from a bloody war in the 1990s after the collapse of Yugoslavia, the country’s constitutional order emerged in international peace talks in the United States. What later became famous as the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) might have stopped the war but, in our opinion, sowed the seeds for complex democratic problems today. As we will show in this text, the ECtHR’s judgments represent a false hope for democracy in B&H, because ethnopolitical parties in B&H will not agree on how to implement the ECtHR’s judgments and the Office of the High Representative will not take a more active role in this context. We therefore argue against an earlier contribution on this blog by Woelk (2023), who suggested that the solution for the implementation of the ECtHR’s judgments should come from within the country, as we will show, ethnopolitical actors do not have a real interest in implementing these judgments. To put it bluntly, change from within is, alas, pie in the sky. It is much more likely that nothing changes and the powers that are remain the powers that will be.
Continue reading >>Die deutsche Mitte
Die Tyrannei der Minderheit und was das Juste Milieu in Deutschland sich selbst über sie erzählt
Continue reading >>The German Center
The tyranny of the minority and what the juste milieu in Germany is telling itself about it
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Civil Disobedience on Trial in Switzerland
Since 2018, Swiss courts have become regular sites of criminal trials against climate activists who engage in various forms of non-violent protest to obtain effective climate action from their government and raise public awareness. Since the autumn of 2018, we have recorded approximately 30 non-violent forms of climate protest and civil disobedience across Switzerland, leading to at least 200 trials in Swiss criminal courts. In this contribution, we highlight three themes that have emerged in the trials of climate activists: First, the Federal Supreme Court has closed the door to the use of the necessity defense to justify civil disobedience in the name of the climate emergency. Second, at least some Swiss judges and courts are open to considering and applying the case law of the ECtHR. Third, the idea of civil disobedience remains deeply contested in the courts, as it is considered by the authorities to be antithetical to the Swiss model of democracy.
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Act Three for Climate Litigation in Strasbourg
Yesterday, on 27 September 2023, a historic hearing took place before the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights. The Court heard the Duarte Agostinho case, brought by six Portuguese children and young people against a whopping 33 Member States of the Council of Europe. Having heard two other climate cases this past March (the KlimaSeniorinnen v. Switzerland and Carême v. France cases, respectively), this was the Court’s final hearing before it issues its first-ever findings on climate change. It was also the Court’s first youth climate case. For several reasons, yesterday’s hearing was a historic one: Duarte Agostinho is the Grand Chamber’s biggest-yet climate case, both in terms of the substantive rights invoked and the number of States involved.
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Recovery and Resilience Facility two years after – quo vadis EU money?
In 2020, at the height of the Covid crisis, the EU embarked on a new path. It extensively borrowed money at capital markets and handed it out to member states. After two years of implementation, it is now possible to make some preliminary conclusions about how that money is being spent. Reading the reports and listening to the hearings in the European Parliament, it becomes abundantly clear that most of it has very little to do with European policies. Rather, spending goes into mundane national budgetary expenditures that may be useful as such but have little genuine European value and little transformational potential. In a time with pressing common European needs, this is not how it should be.
Continue reading >>Wartime Elections as Democratic Backsliding
The topic of the next elections to the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine unexpectedly surfaced in public discourse towards the end of spring this year. Julia Kyrychenko and Olha Ivasiuk’s recent article on Verfassungsblog outlines major legal and practical obstacles to holding wartime elections in Ukraine. In their illuminating analysis, the authors make a strong case against wartime elections, a viewpoint largely shared by civil society. My argument is a bit different. I will argue that (1) wartime parliamentary elections are expressis verbis inconsistent with the Ukrainian Constitution, and (2) wartime elections would undermine the legitimacy of democratic institutions and potentially lead to democratic backsliding.
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Failing the Test
In its recent concluding observations, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities identified significant shortcomings in Germany's implementation of the right to inclusive education (para. 53f.). This piece argues that these are rooted in Germany's history and the continued embrace of an outdated model of disability. Indeed, to the extent the latter remains the foundation for Germany's approach to inclusion, its current endeavours in terms of inclusive education are not only insufficient in light of its international obligations, but also in light of its own constitution.
Continue reading >>No Voting Under Fire
Can Ukraine hold elections while it is in the midst of a full-scale invasion by Russia? This question has recently received international attention, including comments from US Senator Lindsey Graham advocating for elections during the war. However, holding elections during the current state of war faces not only factual but also legal obstacles. Genuine democratic elections cannot be conducted under fire from Russian troops.
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Parliamentary Decisions on its own Behalf and Spanish Constitutional Law
A phrase like "Parliament decisions on its own behalf" has not been codified in Spanish legal and political discourse. Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that there are certain issues where political parties within parliament possess distinct interests that may influence their legislative choices. To counter the potential hazards involved, various elements have demonstrated varying degrees of efficiency in ensuring that decision are being made for the common good, despite the influence of party-specific concerns.
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The Political Process in Search of a Judge
It must be acknowledged: in Italy, a judgment such as that delivered by the German Federal Constitutional Court on 24 January 2023 on party financing is currently constitutional science fiction. The Italian constitutional judges have never theorised, unlike their German colleagues, the need for closer scrutiny in certain matters where a ‘conflict of interest’ of the legislature can be discerned. This also partly reflects a different understanding of their own role within the constitutional system.
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Be Careful What You Wish For
The European Court of Human Rights has issued some troubling statements on how it imagines content moderation. In May, the Court stated in Sanchez that “there can be little doubt that a minimum degree of subsequent moderation or automatic filtering would be desirable in order to identify clearly unlawful comments as quickly as possible”. Recently, it reiterated this position. This shows not only a surprising lack of knowledge on the controversial discussions surrounding the use of filter systems (in fact, there’s quite a lot of doubt), but also an uncritical and alarming approach towards AI based decision-making in complex human issues.
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Civil Disobedience in the Climate Crisis
Blocked streets, occupied airports, and a Brandenburg Gate sprayed with paint: Civil disobedience is making a spectacular comeback.
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Ziviler Ungehorsam in der Klimakrise
Blockierte Straßen, besetzte Flughäfen, besprühte Wahrzeichen: Der zivile Ungehorsam erlebt ein spektakuläres Comeback.
Continue reading >>A Leap Towards Federalisation?
On September 13th, co-rapporteurs Guy Verhofstadt (Renew, BE), Sven Simon (EPP, DE), Gabriele Bischoff (S&D, DE), Daniel Freund (Greens/EFA, DE) and Helmut Scholz (The Left, DE) presented in the Committee on Constitutional Affairs of the European Parliament (AFCO) a wide and ambitious project of Treaty change. This short contribution will highlight and evaluate the most important proposals of AFCO's project and argue that, if adopted, the reform would further the Union’s federalisation, thus potentially changing its legal nature.
Continue reading >>The Legal Art of Judging Art
In another round of the case "Metall auf Metall", the German Federal Court of Justice is asking the Court of Justice of the European Union how to define the concept of pastiche. The CJEU response will not only be crucial for the rules of artistic imitation, but also set the legal frame for the digital reference culture of millions, as expressed in Memes and GIFs every day. This Article takes the referral to the CJEU as an opportunity to recapitulate the proceedings with a sideways glance at the Supreme Court’s Warhol case. Its discussion of transformative use addresses the questions the CJEU will have to answer when defining “pastiche”. How should we deal with the art of imitation?
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Migrant Instrumentalisation: Facts and Fictions
The last two years have seen recurring efforts to introduce the concept of instrumentalisation of migration into EU asylum law on a permanent basis. This post will demonstrate why the ‘instrumentalisation of migration’ is an overly simplified and generalised term that does not capture the complexities of the situation on the ground. Its adoption into EU asylum law thus threatens both to undermine legal certainty and bear far-reaching consequences for the Rule of Law in the EU.
Continue reading >>Poland’s Elections: Free, perhaps, but not Fair
Poland’s upcoming parliamentary elections will be the country’s most important vote since the historic elections of 1989. Indeed, the momentous character of the elections might be the only thing upon which the governing PiS (Law and Justice) party and the opposition might agree. If the elections in October were fair, PiS’ defeat might be plausible though by no means certain. Yet, the preceding sentence identifies a condition we already know will not occur. In this analysis, I map the multiple ways in which the system has been rigged in favour of the incumbents. While I will only describe the most striking aspects of this unfairness, they all form parts of a system and thus should not be looked at in isolation. Kaczyński is a shrewd politician. There’s a method to his (apparent) madness. For the opposition to win is thus a Herculean task. Herculeses do appear in politics – but not that often.
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Passing Electoral Laws
Laws governing electoral issues (hereinafter electoral laws) are vital to representation in a democracy and its existence. This short post outlines why and how electoral laws should be subject to higher approval requirements and heightened judicial review.
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A First Nations Voice to Parliament
Last weekend saw tens of thousands of Australians rally in support of a referendum on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament. The Voice would be a representative body comprised of Indigenous Australians empowered to make representations to Parliament and the federal government on matters that relate to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Its animating objective is to guarantee that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples can have a say in the development of law and policy that affects them. The Voice is not a silver bullet. But if the referendum fails, basic problems concerning the relationship of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the State will remain unaddressed. Indigenous Australians will also continue to struggle to have their interests considered in the processes of governance.
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Bistable Perception
Things that tilt and things that are stable
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Game of Chicken
Yesterday, on September 12th, the Israeli Supreme Court, sitting en banc, heard eight petitions challenging a hotly contested constitutional amendment. The Court has rarely sat en banc in the past, and this is the first time that it sits in a composition of fifteen justices, attesting to the importance that the Court attributes to this decision. The amendment modifies Basic Law: the Judiciary, which protects judicial independence, lays out the process of judicial selection for all the state courts and grants the Supreme Court the authority to supervise state action when the Court convenes in its capacity as a High Court of Justice. In this blog, I will explain each side’s arguments and the strategic considerations behind the Attorney General’s unprecedented move to push the Court to explicitly invalidate a constitutional amendment. I will show how both sides ultimately found themselves dragged into a game of chicken from which they could not back down.
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Justice-on-Demand at the Indonesian Constitutional Court?
Indonesia will have the world’s biggest one-day election in 2024. More than 200 million voters will go to the ballots to choose the next president and legislative members on 14 February, opening a fresh chapter for the nation’s leadership after a decade of President Joko Widodo’s rule. In recent weeks, the Constitutional Court has been flooded with back-to-back filings for judicial review of Indonesia’s General Election Law. Against the backdrop of Indonesia’s declining levels of trust in public institution, the Court’s rulings might not only change the rules of Indonesia’s electoral game but also threaten to further impair its own independence and integrity.
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Sex Workers in Strassburg
A few years ago, France banned buying sex. In M.A. and Others v. France the European Court on Human Rights (ECtHR) now held that a motion of sex workers against that ban is admissible. The Court did not rule on the merits at this stage – this will follow in a subsequent judgement. Nevertheless, this admissibility decision marks a milestone as, for the first time, the Court will examine whether a sex purchase ban violates the rights of sex workers as guaranteed in the European Convention on Human Rights. The ruling appears eagerly anticipated due to its legal precedent within Member States that have passed similar legislation.
Continue reading >>The Price of Transatlantic Friendship
While the citizens of most EU Member States enjoy visa-free travel to the US, citizens of Bulgaria, Romania and Cyprus do not. Following the Commission’s repeated refusal to activate the reciprocity mechanism in EU visa law to remedy this inequality in access to visa-free travel, the European Parliament asked the CJEU whether the Commission was under an obligation to do so. The Court answered in the negative, holding instead that the Commission had wide discretion in this regard. Its reasoning centers the sensitive political nature that visa retaliation vis-á-vis the US implies, while failing to instill a sense of urgency in working towards equal treatment of EU citizens. This threatens to perpetuate a situation in which the advantages of supranational integration in the context of the Schengen acquis are permanently withheld from nationals of Romania, Bulgaria and Cyprus.
Continue reading >>A Government of Laws, not of Men
The Israeli Supreme Court will hear this week (on September 12, 2023) petitions to invalidate an amendment to one of Israel’s Basic-Laws. The amendment, enacted in late July, denies the court the power to review the “reasonableness” of any governmental decision. This amendment is the first part of larger judicial overhaul plan, initiated by the Israeli government. Based on the court’s existing jurisprudence, I expect that the Supreme Court will declare the amendment unconstitutional, as it violates the core principle of the rule of law. In this post I offer a brief overview of the relevant background, before addressing the merits of the current case.
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Shielding Frontex
In a landmark case, the EU General Court ruled this week on liability claims against Frontex for human rights violations - and rejected the damage claims. The case was the first of its kind concerning human rights responsibility of Frontex and had all the ingredients to prompt the General Court to finally clarify a number of pervasive and urgent questions concerning Frontex responsibility for complicity in unlawful human rights conduct. Instead, by conflating the wrongful conduct under scrutiny, the Court prevents a critical examination of Frontex’s conduct altogether. The significance of the case thus lies in the adopted approach by the Court, which, in effect, contributes to the systematic shielding of Frontex from any responsibility for contributions to human rights harms.
Continue reading >>Nicht gewählt werden
Parlamentarische Geheimdienstkontrolle und die AfD
Continue reading >>The False Hope of Israel’s Protestors
The Israel Supreme has become a major mobilizing source for the weekly mass protests against the reform that have been taking place in the last six months in many Israeli towns. Tens of thousands of liberals and conservatives rally around this institution, if not around anything else, confident that the Court is capable of preventing the government from irreversibly breaching the democratic walls. Unfortunately, this confidence is both unfounded and likely to sabotage the anti-reform movement. Given its past rulings and when keeping in mind the conservative nature of the institution of the Israeli judiciary, it is safe to say that the Israel Supreme Court will not be able to salvage the country from a democratic backsliding driven by a determined executive.
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An Interdisciplinary Toolbox for Researching the AI-Act
The proposed AI-act (AIA) will fundamentally transform the production, distribution, and use of AI-systems across the EU. Legal research has an important role to play in both clarifying and evaluating the AIA. To this end, legal researchers may employ a legal-doctrinal method, and focus on the AIA’s provisions and recitals to describe or evaluate its obligations. However, legal-doctrinal research is not a panacea that can fully operationalize or evaluate the AIA on its own. Rather, with the support of interdisciplinary research, we can better understand the AIA’s vague provisions, test its real-life application, and create practical design requirements for the developers of AI-systems. This blogpost gives a short glimpse into the methodological toolbox for researching the AI-act.
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Europe’s Digital Constitution
In the United States, European reforms of the digital economy are often met with criticism. Repeatedely, eminent American voices called for an end to Europe’s “techno-nationalism.” However, this common argument focusing on digital protectionism is plausible, yet overly simplistic. Instead, this blog post argues that European digital regulations reflect a host of values that are consistent with the broader European economic and political project. The EU’s digital agenda reflects its manifest commitment to fundamental rights, democracy, fairness, and redistribution, as well as its respect for the rule of law. These normative commitments, and the laws implementing those commitments, can be viewed in aggregate as Europe’s digital constitution.
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Reinventing a Broken Wheel
On 16 July, the European Commission and the Tunisian government signed a new strategic partnership on migration, sparking outrage by European parliamentarians, researchers and civil society actors given Tunisia’s autocratic turn since 2021 and the recent flaring up of racial and xenophobic violence. The deal is emblematic of the blind spots of trans-Mediterranean migration cooperation over the past decades: First, a growing reliance on informality and symbolic politics at the expense of accountability; and second, a persistently Euro-centrist perspective that overlooks the dynamics South of the Mediterranean, with dire policy consequences.
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Decolonising Criminal Law?
On August 11, the last day of the ongoing session of Parliament, the Indian Government tabled a notice that it wished to introduce three new bills on the Floor of the House for consideration. These were proposed statutes to replace the holy trinity of Indian criminal law: The Indian Penal Code of 1860, the Criminal Procedure Code of 1973, and the Indian Evidence Act of 1872, were to be replaced by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, the Bharatiya Nagrik Suraksha Sanhita and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam respectively. Even though the reform was marketed as an attempt to break from the colonial origins of criminal law, it actually represents a resurgence of the colonial-style authoritarian approach, rather than an effort to build upon the relatively modest progress made half a century ago in advancing individual freedom and civil rights.
Continue reading >>Aiwanger and us
Ironic Nazi schoolboys in rural Bavaria in the late 80s
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Aiwanger und wir
Ironische Nazi-Schulbuben im ländlichen Bayern in den späten 80er Jahren
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Direct Democracy and Indirect Electoral Campaign
In a last-minute attempt to grow voter presence at the booths on the 15th of October, Poland’s ruling party announced it would be combining the upcoming parliamentary elections with a referendum vote on not one, but four issues. This provides the governing powers with an additional electoral campaign just for them – misnamed as the referendum – to draw public attention to the questions asked. After all, they were drafted by those seeking reelection and focus on matters most used in their political agenda.
Continue reading >>Opening Pandora’s Box?
Bosnia and Herzegovina is widely known as a “complex State” that has struggled to progress towards EU accession due to internal divisions. More than 25 years after the war ended, the country seems to remain stuck in transition. Recently, secession claims from Republika Srpska (RS) have become more concrete, a crisis has been triggered around the Constitutional Court. Amid these dynamic developments, a judgment by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) could cause tensions, if not even the opening of Pandora’s box: After a series of previous judgments of a similar kind, on 29 August, 2023, the ECtHR published its judgment in the case of Kovačević v. Bosnia and Herzegovina. The judgment is a fundamental and systemic critique of the power-sharing arrangements and clearly determines the direction any constitutional amendment or reform needs to take: The only possible way is to reduce the institutional relevance of ethnicity and of the privileged status of ‘constituent peoples’.
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How to Form the Czech Constitutional Court?
Politically, summers in the Czech Republic are often quiet. This year is different. A newly elected president, Petr Pavel, is selecting almost all of the fifteen members of the Czech Constitutional Court ("CCC") during the next two years. Unexpectedly, Pavel's selection process has sparked a great deal of controversy and discussion about how a president should choose constitutional judges. What happened? And what are the main lessons to be learned from the current situation in the Czech Republic?
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The New Russian School
The beginning of the new school year in many countries of the former Soviet Union, including in Russia, is celebrated on September 1st and is known as “Knowledge Day”. This year, September 1st will be unique as the new educational amendments enter into force in Russia and Russia-controlled territories. These amendments introduce controversial changes to the educational process, which raise serious concerns about children’s rights and freedoms. These changes include new unified textbooks on history, the legalisation of children’s forced labour, and the continuation of “Conversations about the important” lessons with an enhanced militaristic element.
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Kein Schutz
Tod durch Feuer, Tod durch Wasser, und wer ein Verbrecher ist und wer nicht
Continue reading >>No Protection
Death by fire, death by water, and who's a criminal and who is not.
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On the State of Academia in India
The Economics Department at India’s Ashoka University received an unexpected visit from the Federal Intelligence Bureau. The reason for this visit was a paper titled ‘Democratic Backsliding in the World’s Largest Democracy’ by Sabyasachi Das, an economist. In his research, Das meticulously examined 11 contested seats during India’s 2019 general elections and uncovered imbalanced outcomes that favored the ruling party, BJP. Das noted that ‘the results point to strategic and targeted electoral discrimination against Muslims, in the form of deletion of names from voter lists and suppression of their votes during election, in part facilitated by weak monitoring by election observers.’ The subsequent visit by the Federal Intelligence Bureau is just one among several incidents that highlight the precarious state of academic freedom in India.
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How a Boat Trip to Estonia Challenged the Foundations of the Finnish Sentencing System
In August 2015, a Finnish citizen embarked on a tour from Finland to Estonia and back on a pleasure boat. The private boat trip quickly evolved into a matter of great significance. His journey not only challenged the foundations of the Finnish sentencing system but also shed new light on the requirements of proportionality that EU law may impose on national sentencing systems more broadly. The boatman was fined for not carrying his passport. He contested the penal order, and the case was heard by the district court before being escalated to the Supreme Court of Finland. The Supreme Court sought a preliminary ruling from the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which delivered a verdict that struck at the very core of the Finnish sentencing system.
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Not With a Bang But a Whimper
The European Union’s smallest Member State saw a significant decree delivered on primacy last month. Yet, even domestically, this bomb exploded in the middle of a desert; little to no noise came of it nationally or at the EU level. On the face of it, this is undoubtedly a major legal development – the first of its kind since Malta’s EU accession in 2004. The flawed interpretation offered by the Court says much about the fundamental importance of constitutional reform and is not, as such, a sign of institutional anti-EU sentiment… yet. However, as the main (and practically only) media report on the case concluded, what happens next is anyone’s guess. Constitutional reform in Malta must be put squarely back on the table before it’s too late.
Continue reading >>Schutzsuchende als Schleuser?
In Frankreich wurden am vergangenen Mittwoch zwei sudanesische Männer verhaftet, nachdem sie einige Tage zuvor ein Bootsunglück im Ärmelkanal knapp überlebt hatten. Für einen im Gegenzug reduzierten Preis sollen sie aktiv an der Überfahrt mitgewirkt haben. Strafbar als Schleuserei? Die Vorgaben aus dem Zusatzprotokoll gegen die Schleusung von Migranten auf dem Land-, See- und Luftweg zum Übereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen gegen die grenzüberschreitende organisierte Kriminalität und in gewissem Maße auch dem Pönalisierungsverbot der Genfer Flüchtlingskonvention setzen solchen Praktiken der Kriminalisierung von Flucht enge Grenzen.
Continue reading >>Trivialising Privacy through Tribunals in India
On 11th August 2023, India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (‘DPDP Act’) has received Presidential assent. The Act’s passing is critical in light of increasing concerns about data security and surveillance in India, including allegations that the government has illegally been using spyware against activists. Moreover, the government and its agencies are major data fiduciaries, having access to various identification and biometric data that have in the past been breached on a large scale. Given this, it is vital that the DPDP Act is able to function effectively and independently against the government in cases of non-compliance. However, a novel provision bestowing appellate jurisdiction on a Tribunal that lacks both the necessary expertise and independence is likely to hinder this goal.
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A Plea for Proportionality
In recent months the burning of the Koran in Sweden has caused headlines and severe anger in many parts of the Muslim world as well as bewilderment across the EU as to why Sweden continues to permit the practice. The Government is currently looking into how the law can be changed to include a ban on the burning of the Koran in the Public Order Act. In this blog post, I explain why it might be wise to do so and how this might be done.
Continue reading >>Team Europe’s Deal
On 16 July 2023, the European Commissioner for Neighbourhood and Enlargement and Tunisia’s Secretary of State of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Migration and Tunisians Abroad signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) on a ‘strategic and global partnership’ between the European Union (EU) and Tunisia. The signing followed a meeting in Tunisia between Tunisian President Kais Saied and ‘Team Europe’ (European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, and Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte). The deal is part of the growing trend to externalise migration control. Against this background, this blog post first clarifies what was agreed before explaining why the agreement is problematic both in terms of substance and form.
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In Schwarzburg
Oben und unten, Nazis und Sozialdemokraten, Ruinen und Idyllen, und all das tief, tief in Thüringen
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In Schwarzburg
Castle hills and valley villages, Nazis and Social Democrats, ruins and idylls, and all this in deep, deep Thuringia
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Has Right-Wing Populism Reached Argentina?
Last Sunday, August 13, Argentina held elections to determine the candidates who will run in next October's national presidential elections. In a surprising turn of events, the far-right candidate Javier Milei, an outsider that started in politics around 2019, surged ahead in the preliminary elections, sending shockwaves through Argentina's political landscape which has traditionally favoured left-wing populism. In this blogpost, I argue that disillusionment with political establishment, extremely high inflation and crime are core reasons driving Milei’s surprise success at the ballot box.
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One Act to Rule Them All
Soon Brussels' newest big thing - the Artificial Intelligence Act - will enter the Trilogues. In order to better understand what’s at stake, who are the main actors and their motivations, and how to make one’s mind about all the conflicting claims we need to dive into the legal, economic and political aspects of the AI Act. The aim of this piece is to contextualize major milestones in the negotiations, showcase some of its critical features and flaws, and present challenges it may in the near future pose to people affected by “smart” models and systems.
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The Strasbourg Court Goes Astray
On 1 June 2023, the Grand Chamber of the ECtHR concluded a saga that even experts of the Strasbourg Court might have overlooked. In the Grosam case, the alleged shortcomings in the disciplinary procedure involving a Czech enforcement officer (bailiff) have been addressed. The Grosam chamber judgment was certainly not a routine case. The chamber judgment went to the core of the role of the ECtHR and, if it would have been allowed to stand, it could have seriously undermined the legitimacy of the whole system of the Strasbourg protection.
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How to Respond to the Far Right
Across the European continent, far-right parties are soaring in opinion polls. As the far right continues establishing its presence on the mainstream political stage, the urgency to address its rise and normalisation cannot be overstated. But which strategies are effective when and why?
Continue reading >>An Attack on Indian Democracy
Last week, the Indian government introduced a bill in Parliament providing for, inter alia, the mechanism for appointing Election Commissioners in India. The bill proposes the creation of a three-member Selection Committee composed of the Prime Minister, a Union Minister nominated by the Prime Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition to make recommendations to the President in this regard. The proposed Executive-dominated Selection Committee raises several questions about the conduct of free and fair elections in India. In the paragraphs to follow, I first discuss a recent Supreme Court decision that preceded the introduction of this bill and how this bill, as a response to the Court decision, is instructive to constitutional drafters. I then discuss the possible approaches the Supreme Court of India could adopt when the new legislation is challenged to push back against the Executive’s undemocratic maneuvers.
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How Cohesion Became the EU’s Vehicle for Economic Policy
In Brussels, something remarkable has happened in the last four years. Cohesion policy—which had heretofore been a policy backwater, aimed at addressing regional disparities—has emerged as the EU’s primary vehicle for reshaping economic and related fiscal policies in the Member States. As a result, any economic or fiscal policy measure that can be plausibly described as a structural reform (primarily an area of Member State competence, subject to Union coordination) can now be reframed as a measure of EU cohesion policy (a shared competence) that can be supported by EU funds to incentivize compliance. How did this happen?
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(In)tolerance to Civil Disobedience in the UK
Disruptive environmental protest has become a hugely controversial issue in the UK, both politically and legally. It is likely to be a wedge issue in the upcoming General Election. Both major political parties are talking tough on the issue, and the government has instituted draconian new laws. The courts, for their part, are permitting ever more 'Mega Persons Unknown injunctions' and imposing increasingly longer prison terms for peaceful – but disruptive – protests. Part of this is an international trend, caused by the indisputable evidence of global warming and the increasingly activist environmental movement. But from a UK practitioner’s perspective, it is deeply worrying that there are now a large number of peaceful protesters in the prison system, or facing huge bills for legal costs, or both.
Continue reading >>Out of the Woods?
Large-scale deforestation not only accelerates climate change and biodiversity loss, it is also a serious threat to human rights. While the EU has pursued strategies to combat illegal logging since the early 2000s, it has mostly turned a blind eye to the adverse human rights effects of deforestation. The new EU Regulation on Deforestation (EUDR) acknowledges that human rights and the protection of forests are inextricably linked, but is this really a “major step for ‘deforestation-free’ trade”? This post provides a brief introduction to the EUDR, its most salient features, and critically, its weak points.
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“Blood On Your Hands”
Metaphors are not just rhetorical devices. They are also a significant part of legal reality. A look across the Atlantic shows that the effects they can have even entail risks for the constitutional democracy. This blog posts looks at the case of Zooey Zephyr, member of the House of Representatives in Tennessee, who was stripped of her speaking rights for calling out Republicans for having 'blood on their hands'. At present, however, legal interpretation does not allow an accurate grasp of such metaphors. Therefore, a rethinking is necessary.
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Environmental Protest and Civil Disobedience in Australia
In Germany, disruptive protest demanding climate change mitigation policies has provoked popular and constitutional discussion. Commentators have questioned whether acts of illegality committed as civil disobedience should be treated distinctly from ‘ordinary’ criminality and punished more leniently. In other parts of the world, however, legislative activity has singled out the illegality involved in civil disobedience to the opposite end. Legislatures have introduced laws that radically increase penalties for existing offences involved in disruptive protest and blockades, conferred new powers on police, and created new offences for previously legal forms of protest. In this post I explore an Australian legislative trend of the last decade that specifically targets environmental civil disobedience by imposing additional criminal penalties upon its exercise. The Australian case study is a cautionary tale of what can follow a failure to recognise democratic value in civil disobedience and treat it with constitutional nuance.
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Cluster Munition and International Law
In recent weeks, there has been intense discussion about the delivery of cluster munitions by the United States of America to Ukraine and the subsequent use of these munitions. The use of such ammunition can be an effective military tool, which is why Ukraine has specifically sought the supply of such ammunition from its allies in order to make its defence against Russia’s war of aggression more effective. This blog post sheds light on the international law dimension of the discussion and illustrates the consequences of the delivery of cluster munitions for allied states of Ukraine, which are parties to the Oslo Convention on Cluster Munitions.
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Perils from Within and Without
The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is described as one of the few success stories of the 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA). In contrast to the state-level legislature, the Court’s decision-making process in principle cannot be vetoed. Voting rules do not condition the presence of all three ethnic groups. This has made it difficult for Republika Srpska’s (RS) political leadership to block, boycott or undermine the work of the Court compared to other state-level institutions. However, recent months saw the RS identifying and seizing a rare moment of vulnerability with potentially severe consequences. If RS does not elect new judges in the meantime, not even a Court’s small chamber will be able to operate.
Continue reading >>Im Rücktritt geeint
Die Europäische Kommission hat offiziell einen koordinierten EU-Rücktritt vom Energiecharta-Vertrag (ECT) empfohlen. Das umkämpfte Abkommen, das von Unternehmen der fossilen Energiewirtschaft regelmäßig dazu genutzt wird, staatliche Klimaschutzmaßnahmen anzufechten, kommt damit unter wachsenden Druck. Der Vorschlag der Kommission bietet der Europäischen Union und ihren Mitgliedsstaaten eine einmalige Gelegenheit, mit einer Stimme zu sprechen und eines der prinzipiellen Hindernisse für die Verwirklichung ihrer Klimaziele zu beseitigen. Darüber hinaus würde der Kommissionsvorschlag es der EU auch ermöglichen, sich mit den fortbestehenden Risiken von EU-internen Schiedsverfahren zu befassen, die sich aufgrund der so genannten Fortbestandsklausel über den Rücktritt hinaus erstrecken könnten.
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The Folly of the Israeli Government in Restricting Reasonableness
On Monday, July 24, the Israeli legislature passed a constitutional amendment that would constrain the courts’ ability to use the reasonableness doctrine. The reasonableness doctrine is a common law doctrine developed by the Israeli courts to review executive decisions. Without the reasonableness doctrine, Israel is more conflicted than ever, and vulnerable to the spread of the scourge of corruption. The government shot itself in the foot both domestically and internationally.
Continue reading >>A Scandal on AI in Administration, Again
After the infamous Dutch benefits scandal, the Netherlands are yet again the scene of wrongful application of an algorithm by the government. This time, the main actor is the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs (DUO), the Dutch agency responsible for the allocation and payment of student loans to those enrolled in Dutch higher education. Specifically, DUO used an algorithm in their enforcement task, namely to verify whether the student loans have been rightfully allocated. In 2012, DUO commenced the use of this ‘in-house’ algorithm, which the Minister of Education – under whose responsibility DUO falls – halted on 23 June. The developments in the Netherlands epitomize the promises and pitfalls of further integrating automated decision-making (ADM) into public administration. On the one hand, ADM – sometimes labelled ‘artificial intelligence’ – is cheap and promises efficiency gains. On the other hand, ADM systems may be error-prone when facing the complex realities of societal life and legal ambiguity.
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An Unreasonable Amendment
Amidst massive protests taking place in Jerusalem and throughout the country, on July 24th the Knesset (Israeli parliament) passed Amendment Number 3 to Basic Law: The Judiciary, curtailing the power of Israel’s Supreme Court. The amendment determines that no court, including the Supreme Court seating as the High Court of Justice, may engage with and/or pass judgment on the reasonableness of any “decision” of the government, the prime minister, or any minister; nor may a court give an order on the said matter. The coalition government’s choice to go ahead with the legislation notwithstanding the internal and external pressures may now only deepen the multi-layered crisis the country has been in since January.
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Rechtsgut Datenschutz?
Während materielle Schadensersatzansprüche für Datenschutzverletzungen in der Praxis eine untergeordnete Rolle zu spielen scheinen und verhältnismäßig einfach festzustellen und zu beziffern sind, bereitet die in Art. 82 DSGVO vorgesehene Ersatzfähigkeit immaterieller Schäden den Gerichten Kopfzerbrechen. Eine richtungsweise Entscheidung zu immateriellen Schadensersatzansprüchen für DSGVO-Verletzungen fällte der EuGH Anfang Mai 2023 in der Rechtssache C‑300/21. Es ist das erste Urteil aus einer langen Reihe an Vorabentscheidungsersuchen zur Auslegung des Art. 82 DSGVO. Nach wie vor interpretationsbedürftig bleibt jedoch, wie ein immaterieller Schaden nun konkret festzustellen und zu bemessen ist. Nach einer kurzen Zusammenfassung der Kernaussagen des EuGH befasst sich dieser Beitrag daher mit diesem praxisrelevanten Problem und möchte – insbesondere unter Berücksichtigung etablierter Instrumentarien der deutschen und österreichischen Rechtspraxis – Lösungswege für die mitgliedstaatlichen Gerichte aufzeigen.
Continue reading >>A Hidden Battlefield
The platform work directive proposal presents important implications for the implementation of social security schemes (e.g. those relating to unemployment or incapacity). In particular, it required digital labour platforms to declare and inform social protection authorities of the work performed through the platform and to share with them relevant data, among other aspects. It is important that these implications are maintained in a final instrument, as suggested by the Parliament in its position for trilogue negotiations.
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Advancing Reproductive Rights
Spain has reached a significant milestone in the area of abortion legislation with a new landmark ruling by the Spanish Constitutional Court. Following a long-awaited renewal in January 2023, the court now consists of a progressive majority. Thirteen years after the complaint was filed by 60 congressmen of the conservative party, the ruling finally upholds the constitutionality of Organic Law (LO 2/2010) on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Voluntary Termination of Pregnancy. Departing from the previous indications model, the law allows women to have publicly funded abortions on demand in the first 14 weeks of pregnancy and up to 22 weeks (and in some instances without time limit) in cases of embryopathy and risk to the health or life of the woman.
Continue reading >>More than Formal Recognition?
The Commission’s proposal for a Platform Work Directive contains a number of provisions recognising collective labour rights for platform workers, mostly revolving around information and consultation rights for workers’ representatives. This suggests that, at least in principle, extending workplace representation and industrial relation practices to the platform economy is part of the Commission’s policy agenda. However, this blogpost argues that even if certain collective labour rights are formally recognised, the proposed directive does not offer adequate basis for their effective exercise. Trade union organising, collective bargaining and workplace democracy do not find sufficient support in the directive, thus limiting their development within the platform economy.
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Securitizing the Economy
In June 2023, the European Commission presented the European Union’s first Economic Security Strategy. Its publication is in itself a Zeitenwende in the EU’s foreign and economic policy, despite undeniable shortcomings, in particular the lack of a clear definition which opens the door for overly protectionist measures under the guise of security concerns. To succeed, however, it is critical to view economic security as a public good which can benefit the EU, its Member States, and its citizens.
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How the Platform Work Directive Protects Workers’ Data
The Commission's proposal of the new platform labour directive came with a core promise to platform workers in the EU: to recognize the impact algorithmic management has on their working conditions. In doing so, the directive seeks to clarify and strengthen data rights of workers, regardless of whether they are classified as employees or not. This blog post argues that the main achievement of the proposed Directive is to clarify and reframe existing norms about automated decision-making in a way that shifts attention from data to working conditions. While the specific proposed provisions do not go far beyond norms already established in the General Data Protection Regulation, they are reframed in a way that clarifies that digital labour platforms have the responsibility to ensure fairness, transparency and accountability when making decisions that rely on algorithms.
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A Timid Proposal
With the Council position of 12 June on the proposal for a EU Directive on improving working conditions in platform work, a presumption of employment status for digital platform work is now becoming the subject of trilogue negotiations. A lot could be said about the proposal, the process, and the innovation that would come with an EU Directive on platform work as such. This comment focuses on one central part of the proposal: the presumption of employment. The Commission’s and Council’s proposals suggest a well meant, but timid instrument. Given the already limited scope of te proposals in their definition of “digital labour platforms”, only the Parliament’s position that does not condition the presumption to any additional criteria is able to convince.
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Judges and Organized Crime
Scandalous arrests of judges taking millions in bribes continue to make headlines. For purging the judiciary from corruption, vetting the integrity of judges through internationally supported commissions has become one of the most promising tools. In July 2023, the ECtHR has upheld the dismissal of yet another prominent judge – who had served, both, at the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court of Albania (Thanza v. Albania). While it is obvious that a judge should be dismissed for engaging in organised crime, this case may be the first in the world to raise another, rather unusual question: Can a judge be dismissed simply for having contact with organised crime, even if he has never committed any offence?
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Changing Tides in European Election Law
On 15 June, the Bundestag approved a minimum percentage threshold for elections to the European Parliament (EP). Shortly before the summer break, the Bundesrat (Federal Council) also agreed to the clause. German lawmakers already failed twice in this endeavour before the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht, short BVerfG). This time, the German legislator can refer to a binding EU legal act backing its reform efforts. This means the electoral threshold must now be treated (also by the constitutional court) as determined by EU law – with all consequences. However, even a 2% hurdle is not 100% safe from the BVerfG.
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The Definition of ‘Digital Labour Platform’ in the Proposed Platform Work Directive
On 9 December 2021, the European Commission announced its proposal for a Directive on improving working conditions in platform work—the ‘Platform Work Directive.’ The Directive’s main goals are to reduce false self-employment among persons performing platform work, to regulate algorithmic management on digital labour platforms, and to provide legal certainty for platforms. This blog post focuses on an element of the proposed Directive that has gone relatively unremarked in the scholarly and policy debates so far: the definition of ‘digital labour platform.’
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Tilting at Windmills?
The proposals for an EU Directive on platform work have been subject to much debate, and will continue to do so during the now announced trilogue negotiations in Brussels. What often remains blurry in this debate are the subjects of the legislation: Who is working on platforms? Are we talking about leisurely side arrangements, freelance entrepreneurs, or wrongly employed full-time earners? Empirically, we find a very broad spectrum of digital labour platforms, from online crowdworking platforms to the organisation of offline work such as care, repair or cleaning. This blog post examines the realities of platform labour and kicks off the new symposium 'Final Call for Digital Workers Rights in the EU'.
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The EFTA Court vs Liechtenstein’s Constitutional Court
On July 4 2023, the Court of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) issued its advisory opinion in RS v Steuerverwaltung des Fürstentums Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein’s Constitutional Court had already found in 2020 that a difference in tax rate on income for resident and non-resident employees was incompatible with the free movement of workers. Nonetheless, the Administrative Court of Liechtenstein found it necessary to refer the exact same issue to the EFTA Court, upon which the EFTA Court came to a similar conclusion as the Constitutional Court. The reason thereto? The Constitutional Court had suspended the annulment of the national law for reasons of legal certainty. The question consequently arose of how the national court should further proceed. Should it immediately give full effect to the law of the European Economic Area (EEA) by following the EFTA Court and disapplying the national legislation, or should it give priority to the findings of its own Constitutional Court and nonetheless apply the national legislation, even if that legislation breaches EEA law? How should the national court deal with this conflict of allegiance?
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Waffenungleichheit im Verfassungsprozess
„Gegenstandslos“ – so lautet das Verdikt des Zweiten Senats des Bundesverfassungsgerichts über den Antrag des Deutschen Bundestags auf Ablehnung von Bundesverfassungsrichter Peter Müller im Verfahren über eine Wahlprüfungsbeschwerde der CDU/CSU-Bundestagsfraktion gegen den Umgang des Bundestags mit Wahlfehlern im Land Berlin bei den Wahlen zum 20. Deutschen Bundestag. Damit verstärkt der Zweite Senat eine ohnehin im geltenden Prozessrecht angelegte Unwucht, die sich aus der unterschiedlichen Rechtsstellung von Verfahrensbeteiligten einerseits und lediglich Anhörungsberechtigten andererseits ergibt.
Continue reading >>Contesting the Ultimate Leverage to Enforce EU Law
By now it has become clear that Poland is not willing to discharge the definitive judicial penalties of over EUR 600 million which the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has ordered it to pay for failing to observe coercive interim measures. When the Commission announced it would proceed to set off the outstanding amounts against money due to Poland from the EU budget, the Polish government vowed to fight the recovery ‘with all legal means’. Recently, Poland has put its money where its mouth is. It has brought four cases before the General Court to challenge the recovery. These actions have thus far evaded closer scrutiny in the legal blogosphere. However, they contain a significant challenge to the EU’s powers to enforce judicial penalties against Member States, namely as regards recovery by offsetting. As the cases raise issues which may have repercussions beyond these proceedings, this post casts a closer look at Poland’s applications and analyses their potential broader significance.
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Did Israel Lose its Sanity?
Israel is in the midst of an acute struggle over its constitutional identity. We are witnessing a government adamant about revolutionizing Israel’s constitution (“Basic Laws”), which may typically be amended by a simple majority of the legislature and is thus prey to the whims of an extreme government. The most recent move on the government’s agenda, passing a constitutional amendment that would severely restrict the reasonableness doctrine, would bring Israel closer to the brink of constitutional chaos. In this blog, I explain the theoretical arguments in favor and against the proposal and lay out the implications, should this proposal go through, given the government’s true, concerning motivations that are already evident on the grounds.
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Challenging the ‘Post-Soviet’ Label and Colonial Mindsets
The international discourse long depended on the term ‘post-Soviet’ to refer to the 15 sovereign states that emerged and re-emerged from the Soviet Union following its dissolution in 1991. The list includes European and Asian countries with contrasting backgrounds. Rooted in the context of the Cold War, the term fails to capture the crucial ongoing metamorphosis and challenges of these states for the past thirty years. For Lithuania and the Baltic region at least, the NATO Summit in Vilnius in July 2023 is a chance to emphasize the strong European identity and to challenge the deep colonial mindsets, which overlooks Eastern European perspectives in favor of those built in Moscow since the beginning of the 20th century.
Continue reading >>Weaponizing Russia’s Memory Law
Russia is increasingly using its “memory law” to put pressure on potential critics of the Russian attack on Ukraine. While it is being used to crack down on anti-war dissenters, it also provides a (false) pretext of a legitimate societal cause for its application. In this way, the laws are used to create a mood of paranoia and fear among the population, and a feeling as if the country were in a besieged fortress.
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Why Europe Must Never Forget about the Polish Constitutional Court
In 2023, we should have been celebrating the 41st anniversary of the establishment of Polish Constitutional Court. “Should” is used advisedly here because as is well known Poland no longer has a constitutional court. Undoubtedly, the technical question of how to rebuild the Court is important, yet we should also understand why its rebuild must be the first order of the day after the present dark days of total capture. I argue, in this respect, that the EU would do well to remember the central role constitutional courts have played in the particular form of constitutionalism that emerged in the aftermath of Europe’s experience with totalitarianism, and the laudable way in which the Polish Constitutional Court took up this task.
Continue reading >>Restoring the Rule of Law By Breaching It
The judicial reform recently passed by the Hungarian Parliament ostensibly seeks to restore the independence of the judiciary and the rule of law in Hungary. Crucially, it is also a vital step for the government to gain access to the 27 billion in frozen EU funds. While some might think that the EU’s strategy has been successful, a closer look shows that while the reform has the potential of improving judicial independence, the procedure leading to its adoption shows that there is no real commitment to restore the rule of law. In particular, throughout the law-making process the government consistently flouted the principle of legality, including the requirement of transparent, accountable, democratic and pluralistic law-making.
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Das Ende des Daten-Eldorados
Das Zeitalter des „Daten-Eldorados“ dürfte vorbei sein. Nach dem epochalen Urteil des Europäischen Gerichtshofs im Fall Meta wird sich das Geschäftsmodell der Big-Data-Unternehmen grundlegend ändern müssen – zum Schutz ihrer Nutzer vor Missbrauch ihrer persönlichen Daten und der Öffentlichkeit vor Missbrauch der marktbeherrschenden Stellungen dieser Unternehmen.
Continue reading >>Harvard’s Diversity Chicken Comes Home to Roost
The US Supreme Court's decision in Students for Fair Admission is a potential blessing. Diversity was always a problematic justification for race-based admissions programs. Diversity's origins are anti-Semitic. More likely, however, the decision will be a curse. The United States Supreme Court has made the pathway for disadvantaged minorities more difficult.
Continue reading >>Intertemporal Freedom in the Historic Climate Protection Ruling of the German Federal Constitutional Court
The climate protection ruling of the German Federal Constitutional Court in Karlsruhe of 2021 is a historic decision. It is on a par with the Court's major landmark decisions such as Lüth, Elfes, or Brokdorf. It updates the fundamental value of equal freedom: Freedom includes future freedom and, as a right to intertemporal freedom, can demand a proportional distribution of freedom opportunities over time.
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The Dangers of Conflation
On May 17th 2023 Advocate General de la Tour handed down the Opinion in case C-402/22. It addresses the meaning of “particularly serious crime” found in Article 14 (4) (b) of the 2011 Qualification Directive, which sets out the grounds for revocation or refusal to grant refugee status under EU law. This provision refers to “refugees delinquents” and introduces security concerns of states as the ground for depriving persons of their refugee status. In practice, it opens the question of how to treat refugees that committed certain crime(s) after they obtained refugee status. In this blog I detail the AG’s answer to that question and raise one overriding concern regarding Article 14 QD.
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Having a Break
If the Federal Constitutional Court wants to reflect on constitutional abuse, that's a good thing!
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Pause machen
Will das Bundesverfassungsgericht über Verfassungsmissbrauch nachdenken? Gute Sache!
Continue reading >>From Symbolic Constitutionalism to Real Constitutionalism
In 2010, Kenyans adopted a new constitution that was meant to limit the power of the presidency and entrench the culture of constitutionalism. However, the past 13 years have shown that ‘the forces of authoritarianism appear to have regrouped and are staging a comeback’. These attempts have been met with resistance from Kenyan citizens, who have shown that they are willing to defend their constitution. One example of this resistance is the BBI case, in which the High Court struck down a constitutional amendment bill that would have given the president more power. This week, the High Court issued another spectacular ruling in which presidential power is further curtailed.
Continue reading >>Mourning the Dead While Securitizing the Sea
On 16 June, just two days after the catastrophic Pylos shipwreck in the Mediterranean with probably hundreds of deaths, the EU Commission organised the 4th meeting on a European framework for search and rescue in the Mediterranean. The framework is supposed to address „the specific challenges stemming from the ongoing migratory movements to the EU by sea, including those deriving from the increased number and types of actors involved in SAR operations“. While the alleged aim of the framework is to improve cooperation between Member States and other actors, under the guise of ‘improving cooperation with other actors’, the milestones (‘deliverables’) identified in the draft roadmap for the adoption of the framework risk to further impede civil search and rescue operations. Civil society organisations active in Search and Rescue operations may face extensive administrative burdens in registering ships and in the execution of search and rescue operations.
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Competition law as a powerful tool for effective enforcement of the GDPR
It looks like a good week for data protection. On Tuesday, the Commission presented a new proposal for a Regulation on additional procedural rules for the GDPR, and a few hours later, the ECJ published its decision C-252/21 on Meta Platforms v Bundeskartellamt (Federal Cartel Office). While the Commission's proposal to improve enforcement in cross-border cases should probably be taken with a pinch of salt, the ECJ ruled on some things with remarkable clarity. The first reactions to the ruling were quite surprising; few had expected the ECJ to take such a clear stance against Meta's targeted advertising business model. It does however represent a consistent interpretation of the GDPR in the tradition and understanding of power-limiting data protection.
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Reform the European Union for Enlargement!
External shocks such as the financial and migration crises, the Coronavirus pandemic, as well as internal and external security threats from terrorism as well as Russia's war against Ukraine emphasise that the EU, which has developed to be more heterogeneous, has become increasingly fragile. In line with a reduced willingness and ability of Member States to integrate further, the EU is becoming incapable of action and therefore is in danger of losing the trust of its citizens. Against this background, it is important not to gloss over the problems and to develop constructive solutions. This blogpost offers several possible solutions.
Continue reading >>Constraining Executive Discretion in the ‘Public Interest’
The use of highly-discretionary executive powers to make immigration decisions has given rise to debate in Australia and internationally. In Australia, the problem is particularly acute because a number of provisions in the Migration Act 1958 (Cth) (the Migration Act) allow the Minister for Immigration (the Minister) to intervene in visa decisions on ‘public interest’ grounds. These intervention powers are controversial as they are personal to the Minister, non-reviewable and non-compellable. As a result, they have been subject to criticism by both civil society and academics. In addition to these intervention provisions, other sections in the Migration Act include a broad and subjective ‘national interest’ criterion for the grant or refusal of certain visa decisions. These two sets of powers were recently adjudicated in a series of High Court cases in Australia.
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Bolsonaro Faces the Rule of Law
On 30 June 2023, the Brazilian Electoral Superior Court ruled that former President Jair Bolsonaro is disqualified from running for any electoral position for the next eight years. Although there are fifteen other electoral actions brought against Bolsonaro by other political parties or by public electoral prosecutors, most of which refer to accusations of attempting to compromise the integrity of the 2022 elections, this was the first case to reach Brazil’s highest electoral court. Despite there being a precedent, the ruling is not a legal innovation, but the mere application of existing laws.
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The Supreme Court v. the Administrative State
On Friday, June 30, the Supreme Court ended its session with a serious blow to the progressive agenda after its decisions striking down race-conscious college admissions and narrowing protections for LGBTQ consumers the day before. In its final case, Biden v. Nebraska, the Court further thwarted the Biden campaign, which is counting on the help of young voters to get reelected for a second term, as it struck down the Biden administration’s plan to wipe out more than $400 billion in student debt. The decision in Biden v. Nebraska joins a series of recent Supreme Court decisions aimed at curbing the executive branch’s power to regulate certain issues and to limit the so-called administrative state. In this battle against the administrative state, the major question doctrine, according to which it cannot be assumed that the administration has been authorized to regulate a “major question” with far-reaching economic and political consequences without “clear congressional authorization,” has become one of the central tools.
Continue reading >>The Kakhovka Dam and Ecocide
The destruction of the Kakhovka dam and consequent damage to housing and flooding of tens of thousands of hectares of land, is reportedly causing severe harm to humans and nature. This blogpost argues, first, that the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam potentially violated prohibitions under multiple fields of international law, but that challenges will nonetheless arise in establishing criminal responsibility for those violations due to the distinct elements of the relevant criminal provisions and the heightened burden of proof on the prosecution in such cases. Because various normative systems are applicable to the facts, ranging from international humanitarian law, international criminal law, and international environmental law, a means of reconciling conflicts of norms will be required. This will be best served by an approach of complementary interpretation.
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A Taxonomy of Standing
On June 21, the General Court handed down its order in T-628/22 René Repasi v the European Commission. Repasi had challenged the validity of the Commission Delegated Regulation 2022/1214, a complementary taxonomy regulation on nuclear energy and natural gas. The General Court dismissed the action due to lack of standing. To surmount the notoriously strict standing requirements before the CJEU, Repasi relied on his position as a Member of Parliament (MEP) and argued that a claim of a wrong choice of the legal basis that leads to deviation from the ordinary legislative procedure (OLP) gives an MEP standing before the EU courts. The difficulties that MEPs encounter while fulfilling their legislative responsibilities make Repasi’s argument appealing. However, creating a new semi-privileged standing category through the Union courts could also present its own set of difficulties.
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A Constitution without Constitutionalism
“Digital constitutionalism” has attracted a good deal of scholarly attention in recent years, much of it enthusiastic, some more sceptical. Just what constitutionalism means, and how this meaning can be transposed into a realm of private ― albeit increasingly regulated ― interactions rather than traditional public law, is part of the debate between the enthusiasts and the sceptics. All agree, however, that it is a normatively charged idea, a shorthand reference to certain values which include ― whether or not they are limited to ― respect for certain human rights. In this post, I argue that while we can indeed think of internet regulation in constitutional terms, we must first understand what I shall call the constitution of cyberspace. A descriptive effort must precede any normative projects directed at imposing values allegedly inherent in the notion of constitutionalism onto cyberspace. And further, understanding the constitution of cyberspace should at least make us wary of digital constitutionalism’s normative ambitions.
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Poland’s Extended Disciplinary System
The judgement of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) on June 5, 2023 (C-204/21) has added a new chapter to the rule of law crisis in Poland. The outcome was largely expected given the well-established jurisdiction of the ECJ on matters of the rule of law. However, a close reading of the judgment demonstrates that it recognizes the more insidious ways in which Poland has undermined judicial independence. Specifically, I argue that the ECJ's ruling paves the way for a legal response to the suppression of judicial independence through public intimidation and stigmatization of judges.
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To Be Kept Away From Power
The Sonneberg election and its fallout
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Politicians don’t dance? AI doesn’t either!
“Why don’t politicians ever dance? – Because they have too many steps to backtrack on!” Chat-GPT answered this when we asked the program to tell a political joke. While this example is somewhat worrying since the underlying assumption might perpetuate existing stereotypes about politics and politicians, the joke also highlights that AI has become witty and incredibly good at behaving in a way we perceive as human. Thus, we take the recent advancements of generative AI as a motivation to analyze its potential effects on political campaigns and democratic elections.
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Saifan and the Weaponization of Trade Secrets
The Knesset’s Constitution, Law and Justice Committee has been convening to discuss the regulation of spyware in response to the on-going fall-out over the Israeli police’s use of the spyware Pegasus (“Saifan” in its local iteration) to surveil Israeli citizens, including political activists. Public debate has chiefly focused on the question of legal authority surrounding police surveillance but has generally failed to recognize the underlying cooptative dynamics of governmental technology procurement. In this post, we detail the contested legal grounds on which the Israeli police and Ministry of Justice rely for spyware authorization as well as an analysis of the government procurement of surveillance technology, with particular emphasis on the weaponization of trade secrets in the service of strategic concealment of governmental operations. We argue that the combination of outdated laws with nontransparent operations make public accountability and oversight intensely difficult.
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Yevgeny Prigozhin and Russia’s Expanding Prerogative State
Over the weekend, the world’s attention was gripped as a well-equipped Russian private military company led by Evgeny Prigozhin seized control of a key Russian city and military hub, and marched on Moscow. Prigozhin’s actions reveal a deeper truth about Putin’s Russia: the absence of formalised, legal mechanisms for peacefully resolving high-level, intra-elite disputes. As the war in Ukraine drags on, what Ernst Fraenkel called the ‘prerogative state’ is expanding. This lawless realm of unchecked public power has no rules or institutions that can settle disputes among the Russian elite; these can only be resolved by Putin himself.
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Human Rights Violations to Deflect Refugees
The Council of the European Union (EU) recently reached a negotiating position (‘mandate’) on two significant elements of the ‘reform’ of the Common European Asylum System (CEAS). The vision hailed as a ‘historic’ agreement by national governments is a direct threat to the right to asylum. The Council not only maintains all structural flaws of the CEAS intact but proposes a quagmire of asylum procedures marred by unworkable, unnecessarily complex rules, that are in clear violation of key human rights standards.
Continue reading >>How to Rebuild Poland’s Rule of Law
Ahead of the next parliamentary elections, a core question is whether and if so how we can restore Poland’s rule of law. While the current effort is understandably focused on resurrecting the Constitutional Court and rebuilding an independent judiciary and prosecution, a purely institutional approach won’t be enough. Instead, it is imperative to mobilize and build lasting defiance on the ground.
Continue reading >>Can the Hungarian Council Presidency be Postponed – Legally?
By now, it is commonly agreed that Hungary is no longer a democracy. I will offer in this blogpost some legal underpinnings to the argument that occupying the Council presidency must rotate only among those states that are in compliance with Article 2 TEU values including the rule of law, those that are fully fledged representative democracies in line with Article 10 TEU, that have been in line with Article 49 TEU at the time of accession and never regressed.
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Addressing Legal Myths about the Proposed EU Nature Restoration Law
In June 2022, the EU Commission adopted a Proposal for a Nature Restoration law which aims to restore the degraded levels of biodiversity within the European Union. The proposed instrument has been misinterpreted, in part by an active agroindustry lobby, seeking to prevent the adoption of the restoration law. These scientific and economic myths have been contested. Yet, legal myths, oversimplifications or concerns often remain unaddressed.
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On the Pylos Shipwreck
Only 104 out of the 750 passengers who travelled on the fishing boat, which capsized on June 14 and sank in the Ionian Sea, were rescued. The bodies of 80 have been recovered so far and the remaining passengers, an estimated total of as many as 500 people, including large numbers of women and children, remain missing. The boat had departed from Libya the previous Friday and was heading towards Italy. The tragic shipwreck, which immediately became yet another icon of the never-ending catastrophe of asylum seeking in the Mediterranean, occurred on the high seas, 87 kilometres from the Greek Coast. As long as the overarching policy aim is to deter racialized migrants from entering the EU, tragedies like the one in Pylos are bound to continue.
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Erdogan’s Wish List Come True?
On 1 June 2023, the new Swedish anti-terrorism legislation entered into force whose primary novelty is the criminalization of membership in terrorist groups. While it thereby aligns Swedish counter-terrorism law with the EU 2017 Counter-terrorism Directive, the move has been controversial for several reasons. In particular, the legislation is widely seen as an attempt to win Erdogan’s support for Sweden’s still pending NATO application. This, in turn, has raised concerns that the new law is exceeding what is required by the Directive.
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The Thuringia Project
What happens when an autoritarian-populist party gets state power in their hands in the Federal Republic of Germany?
Continue reading >>Das Thüringen-Projekt
Was passiert, wenn eine autoritär-populistische Partei in einem deutschen Bundesland staatliche Machtmittel in die Hand bekommt?
Continue reading >>The GDPR’s Journalistic Exemption and its Side Effects
On 25 May 2023, we mark the fifth anniversary of the General Data Protection Regulation’s (GDPR) full application in the European Union (EU). While the Regulation is primarily known for its impact on business, it also fostered significant changes to data processing by media outlets, which are often overlooked in discussions about data protection. This blog post analyzes what is commonly called the ”journalistic exemption” under Article 85 of the GDPR that requires Member States to regulate the extent to which GDPR applies to journalists and others writing in the public interest. Further, this contribution reflects on how exactly that journalistic exemption is implemented across the Member States, and considers the problematic consequences of the GDPR’s uneven application to the media sector, including instrumentalization of GDPR in the strategic litigation (SLAPPs) against journalists.
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The Brave New World of Areios Pagos
These are exciting times for Greek constitutionalists. In its capacity as electoral judge, the first section of the Greek Supreme Civil and Criminal Court (Areios Pagos) recently banned the participation of the neo-Nazi Hellenes National Party in the elections of 21 May. In order to accept the constitutionality of the legislative ban on Hellenes National Party, Areios Pagos had to provide not only a new interpretation of Greek constitutional provisions, but also a whole new vision of democracy, of the Greek and the European Constitution and of Greek constitutional politics. The brave new world of Areios Pagos is part of a new constitutionalist approach that is likely to affect the application of constitutional provisions in future cases, as the more recent decision concerning the elections of 25 June shows.
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Walking A Democratic Tightrope
That was fast. On 8 June, only 11 days after the Polish so-called ‘Lex Tusk’ was signed into force, the Commission launched an infringement procedure against Poland. For the first time, the Commission is relying on the principle of democracy in Art. 10 TEU as an autonomous plea, dropping another bombshell shortly after the first direct invocation of Art. 2 TEU in infringement proceedings against Hungary earlier this year. This contribution discusses both the perks and potential perils of the direct enforcement of the principle of democracy in Art. 10 TEU. On the one hand, a shift from what is arguably better called ‘militant rule of law’ towards more literally EU militant democracy is a positive development, as it better captures the nature and range of the principles which are de facto under threat in several EU Member States. On the other hand, the present infringement action illustrates the principled challenge of militant democracy to preserve the possibility of democratic regime change, all whilst not lapsing into a form of institutional conservatism.
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Fast-Tracking Law Enforcement at the Expense of Fundamental Rights
Five years in the making, the EU’s e-evidence Regulation was finally adopted by the European Parliament on June 13. The Regulation will allow law enforcement authorities to directly compel online service providers operating in the EU to preserve or produce e-evidence in the context of criminal proceedings. This is achieved through applying the principle of mutual recognition to cooperation with online service providers, thereby skipping judicial control in the Member State where the service provider is established. Whilst these innovations have been lauded for facilitating access to data in cross-border cases, this blogpost will detail how the Regulation’s emphasis on speed and efficiency comes at the expense of safeguarding suspects’ fundamental rights.
Continue reading >>SLAPPs, Daphne’s Law, and the Future of Journalism
Media freedom has many dimensions. Whereas the EMFA deals directly with media oversight bodies and the likes, the proposed anti-SLAPP (strategic lawsuits against public participation) directive weighs into a more niche but crucially important topic: the silencing of journalists through bogus litigation. Such bogus litigation - or SLAPPS - does not intend to „win” cases but to slowly but steadily dry out journalists financially, emotionally, and socially. Currently, the Council of the European Union and the European Union Parliament are working on their proposals of the directive. It is crucial that the Commission’s proposal will not be watered down.
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Interaction Without Affection?
The EU's legislative activity in the area of media and platform regulation is currently unfolding at an unprecedented pace. The thematically broad EMFA builds in many places on recently adopted legal acts whose interpretation is still unclear. This leads to parallelisms and overlaps as well as unclear and convoluted references, which can only be briefly outlined here and should be clarified in the trilogue negotiations.
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Taking Separation of Powers Seriously
In Turkey's recent election, 15 ministers from the Justice and Development Party, chaired by President Erdoğan, were nominated as parliamentary candidates and elected as MPs on 14 May. Since none of the presidential candidates won an overall majority, two leading candidates, Erdoğan and Kılıçdaroğlu competed in a runoff vote on 28 May, in which Erdoğan secured the victory. Thus, the new ministers were neither appointed nor took office until after the runoff vote. Throughout this process, the former ministers, including the 15 elected as MPs, preserved their executive posts and titles. Should the 15 Erdoğan government ministers have resigned to run for parliamentary candidacy? And is there a constitutional incompatibility between ministerial and MP titles? The law is not always clear on these questions. This lack of clarity, we argue, can have serious consequences for the balance of power in a newly established governmental system.
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EMFA and its Uphill Battle for Media Freedom and Democracy in the EU
The European Media Freedom Act, primarily designed to safeguard the EU media market, can also serve as an important tool in preserving the rule of law in member states such as Hungary and Poland, that have experienced an alarming assault on media freedom and pluralism in the past decade. This contribution critically evaluates the potential of the proposed European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) for addressing the ongoing issues in media freedom in Poland and Hungary.
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“A Bit of Fun. A Bit of Truth.”
The extent of (private) media regulation depends on the willingness to trade private for public power. This blogpost takes the Commission's EMFA proposal as an opportunity to question the assumptions about media, markets, and politics behind it. It finds that the Commission’s approach treats private like public media: First, it functionalizes the fundamental rights of private individuals and companies in terms of their public benefit; second, it imagines the conditions of qualitative journalistic work as those of civil servants.
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Bulgaria’s Mafia State and the Failure of the CVM
Recent events in Bulgaria have brought the true extent of its rule of law decay to the fore. The wars between the highest-ranking prosecutors in the country, public testimonies by participants in crime syndicates implicating senior magistrates and politicians, and the brutal murders of potential witnesses against organized crime demonstrate that the line between organized crime, the judiciary, and the political apparatus is increasingly difficult to draw. In this post, I argue that the current escalation of Bulgaria’s rule of law crisis lays bare the European Commission’s continued mismanagement of the Cooperation and Verification Mechanism (CVM).
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Enforcing Democracy
On the 8th of June, the Commission announced the opening of an infringement procedure against Poland in relation to the so-called ‘Lex Tusk’ or ‘anti-Tusk’ law. The principle of democracy is the first alleged violation specified by the Commission, based on Articles 2 and 10 TEU. Although proposed back in 2020 by observers of the Rule of Law crisis (see here and here), using this combination of articles to protect democracy is an unprecedented step by the institution. In a way, this follows the successful actions brought against Poland based on Articles 2 and 19 TEU (with ‘successful’ referring to the Court upholding the Commission’s complaints). It also recalls similarities with the Commission’s decision to invoke Article 2 TEU as a stand-alone provision in the infringement proceedings against Hungary’s ‘anti-LGBTQ’ law. The Commission is now testing out the legal waters to see if Article 10 TEU can be the trigger for ‘democracy’ in the same way Article 19 TEU is the trigger for ‘rule of law’.
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Without Enforcement, the EMFA is Dead Letter
Besides important substantive provisions, the EMFA proposal contains various mechanisms concerning the role of national regulatory authorities, the newly established European Board for Media Services (Board) and the Commission. However, this blogpost argues that the proposed tools fail to effectively improve the already available enforcement mechanisms in EU law. We offer three recommendations to improve enforcement of media law and policy in the EU, while remaining within the boundaries of the competences as established by the EU Treaties.
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Why the Words “But” and “However” Determine the EMFA’s Legal Basis
Enacting a regulation, which is directly applicable throughout the EU, with such a focus would undoubtedly entail a far-reaching interference with the cultural sovereignty of the Member States, documented inter alia in Art. 167(4) TFEU and the Amsterdam Protocol concerning public service broadcasting. This requires a careful concretisation of existing obstacles to the internal market, their actual overcoming by the proposed rules and a consideration of cultural interests and traditions of the Member States. In its current shape, the EMFA, irrespective of its noble goal, does not meet these requirements. Therefore, most of the EMFA’s substantive rules do not solidly rest on a legal basis, making the proposal partly incompatible with Union law.
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In Search of (Ir)Responsibility
It is no secret that the eastern Mediterranean route linking Turkey with Greece is currently shifting. Due to the harsh conditions for asylum-seekers in Greece, Greek pushbacks, and border closures by the Balkan states, asylum-seekers have started to cross the eastern Mediterranean to reach Italy instead. This sea route is much longer, and therefore, more dangerous. In the Crotone shipwreck, at least 94 asylum-seekers died right in front of Italian shores. Recent investigative reports indicate that Italian maritime authorities and Frontex could have prevented these deaths. Building on these reports, this blogpost argues that Italian authorities and Frontex violated their legal search and rescue (SAR) obligations: Both authorities failed to adequately evaluate the case and initiate the urgently required rescue measures.
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Freedom Governed by Brussels
With its EMFA proposal, the Commission is pursuing objectives that are beyond doubt: the safeguarding of plural, independent media in the Union. But no matter how noble an objective may be, it is still not a legal basis. Furthermore, European media supervision shouldonly be linked to the Commission if its oversight Board can provide independent supervision. Finally, the regulatory approach as such has to be questioned: Shall media freedom be secured through media supervision?
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The Key to Ensure Media Pluralism in the EU? A Unified Framework
Media freedom is one of the necessary conditions for democracies to function. Yet media freedom is currently not guaranteed in all European Union countries. The European Media Freedom Act proposed by the European Commission in 2022 aims to protect and foster media pluralism across the EU block and, while some changes would need to be made to strengthen the proposal’s efficacy, monitoring on the ground shows that a common European framework is indeed needed. While there are already several harmonisation measures that revolve around media – such as the Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD) – this is the first text that clearly and specifically addresses the media market in and of itself, which marks a paradigm shift in EU media regulation.
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Doing Justice to Poland’s Muzzle Law
On 5 June 2023, the Court of Justice issued its fourth infringement judgment in relation to yet another Polish piece of legislation – informally known as the muzzle law – which aimed to dissuade or punish Polish judges for applying and upholding EU rule of law requirements. As anyone with any basic understanding of EU law could have predicted, the law rushed into force by Poland’s ruling coalition in December 2019 did not survive judicial scrutiny in Luxembourg. As long as the Commission fails to demand full compliance with CJEU case law and decisively address the issue of judicial usurpers, however, just chipping away at the arbitrary disciplinary changes Polish authorities have made will always fail to solve Poland’s fundamental and systemic issues.
Continue reading >>How to Write a Blog Post
The most important thing: a clear and sharp thesis.
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Regulating the Sustainability Transition
The European Parliament’s adoption of its position on the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) last week marks a breakthrough for transnational corporate regulation. At a moment when the EU Green Deal was facing open opposition from within the European People’s Party Group (EPP), rapporteur Lara Wolters (S&P) withstood lobbying efforts until the final minute and secured a majority for her report. With a strong mandate for the Parliament in the upcoming Trilogue, the EU has come a big step closer to passing the most ambitious due diligence legislation worldwide.
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YouTube Updates its Policy on Election Misinformation
Last Friday, YouTube announced that it ‘will stop removing content that advances false claims that widespread fraud, errors, or glitches occurred in the 2020 and other past US Presidential elections’. This development has upsides and downsides, a few of which are worth sketching out, and all of which further accentuate why the US constitutional framework regarding online platform regulation requires updating. The nature of this update requires transcending a governance approach of overreliance on expecting good faith self-regulation by companies providing these intermediaries.
Continue reading >>An Inconvenient Constraint
On 1 July 2024, Hungary is set to take over the Presidency of the Council of Ministers. The European Parliament and the Meijers Committee issued reports questioning whether Hungary should be blocked from doing that. These proposals raise questions of political feasibility, however, especially as one may doubt if a Hungarian Council Presidency can do much practical damage to the EU. In addition, they also raise questions of legal feasibility. A logical prerequisite for preventing Hungary from holding the Presidency as long as it breaches the rule of law is that doing so is consistent with the EU’s own rule of law. I doubt it is.
Continue reading >>An American in the Antique Store
Last week, Adrian Vermeule gave a lecture at a conference at Berlin’s Catholic Academy which brought together a diverse set of participants. Titled “Non Nova, Sed Nove: The Common Good in Constitutional Law”, the catholic convert gave a glimpse of his common good constitutionalism with a focus on the European tradition of civil law, developed by the Romans, preserved by the See of Rome and brought to fruition by legal scholars from Baldus to Jhering. His lecture, framed by comments from Corine Pelluchon and Joseph H.H. Weiler, wasn't really tying the threads closer. Vermeule reminds of an American tourist rummaging in the antique stores of Europe for things that will make an impression at home. Meanwhile, the locals are raising their eyebrows at his choices.
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Spotlight Interpretation and its Devastating Effects
After 1989 Poland struggled to build up a free state based on the rule of law. More recently, illiberal constitutionalism has been damaging these hard-won gains. This blogpost will argue that the systematic dismantling of Poland’s rule of law, without officially amending the Constitution, was possible due to a peculiar interpretative technique called spotlight interpretation. Its essence lies in the opportunistic interpretation of systemically important constitutional provisions to achieve the short-term political goals of the ruling majority, and it has arguably been central to the destruction of judicial independence in Poland’s constitutional order.
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Strasbourg’s Coming Out
On June 1st, in Maymulakhin and Markiv v. Ukraine, the ECtHR determined for the first time in clear terms that the general absence of legal recognition for same-sex couples is discriminatory and violates Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights. This marks a significant addition to the Court’s case-law concerning the rights of same-sex couples with implications for future litigation on this subject.
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Institutional Corsets and the Question of Timing
There has been a lot of noise around whether Hungary should, and legally could, be blocked from taking over the Council presidency in the second half of 2024, considering the state of the rule of law in the country. On 1 June, the European Parliament adopted a resolution, questioning Hungary’s ability to “credibly fulfill” the tasks of a Council presidency and asking the Council to “find a proper solution as soon as possible”, else Parliament could take “appropriate measures”. Such concerns are legitimate, but another question seems to be sidelined in the debate: How much practical damage can the upcoming Council presidency under Hungary actually do in the EU?
Continue reading >>Signs and Symbols
I have to return to the matter of sec. 86a of the German Criminal Code.
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Democratizing Switzerland
About 25% of Switzerland’s permanent population do not possess the red passport necessary to vote due to one of the most restrictive citizenship law’s in the Western world. The Democracy Initiative is trying to change this. While unlikely to succeed, they are nonetheless starting an important conversation about how to fix Switzerland’s semi-democracy.
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Boiling the Frog
In the wake of Turkey's recent presidential elections, previous blogposts objected to characterizing authoritarian regimes such as Turkey, Hungary and India as ‘competitive’ solely by virtue of regular elections, which are formally free but fundamentally unfair. However, this blogpost argues that the prior ones missed the main problem in Turkey: The playing field in Turkey is not only “massively tilted in favor of Erdogan” now; it has always been tilted in favor of the majority – long before Erdoğan. This blogpost discusses the slow death of Turkish electoral competitiveness. First, I describe the politico-legal context that enabled Erdogan’s rise. Second, I contrast the developments in Turkey regarding election competitiveness to European legal standards and strikingly late political demands.
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The Leopard Paradox?
In early May, Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni hosted a roundtable to discuss institutional reforms designed to improve “the stability of governments and legislatures, and respect for citizens’ votes at the ballot box.” A central campaign promise of hers, the reforms are meant to address Italians’ exacerbating distrust of political institutions, rooted in the fact that Italy’s administrations are among the most short-lived in Europe. This adds to its comparatively low levels of ‘clarity of responsibility’. Three options emerged from the discussion. I will briefly discuss the potential and challenges of each option.
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An Honest Broker?
A characteristic of the functioning of the EU is that the Presidency of the Council of Ministers rotates between Member States every six months according to a previously agreed order. The EU Presidency is responsible for driving forward the Council’s work on EU legislation. In the second half of 2024, Hungary will take over the Presidency, followed by Poland in the first half of 2025. Given their rule of law record, it is highly questionable whether they will act in the Council’s general interest. In order to avoid damage, there are three avenues available to the Council and the Member States.
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The Law to Take Out Tusk
On 29 May, President Duda has peremptorily signed this law into force which sets up a new body: a commission to track Russian influence on Polish public officials and other public figures which may have resulted in the undermining of Polish security. This monster of a law has so many defects, pathological features and outright conflicts with the rule of law, even at its very basis, that it is hard to know where to start.
Continue reading >>A Win for LGBT Rights in Namibia
In the recent case of Digashu and Seiler-Lilles the Namibian Supreme Court held that denying the recognition of same-sex spouses under the Immigration Control Act 1993 was not only a violation of the right to dignity under the Namibian Constitution, but also amounted to unfair discrimination. While limited in scope, the judgement is a win for the rights of LGBTQIA+ persons in a jurisdiction where they remain mostly unrecognized. It is also notable for its use of comparativism as a deliberative resource.
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Ecuador’s Mutual Death Clause
On May 17, Ecuadorian President, Guillermo Lasso, dissolved the National Assembly by activating a unique constitutional clause known as ‘mutual death’ [muerte cruzada]. Under this provision, added to Ecuador’s Constitution in 2008 but never before used, the President can dissolve the Legislative, call general elections, and rule by decree until a new Legislative and President are elected. This post details the significance of these recent events and the decision of the Constitutional Court to render the clause non-reviewable.
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A Return of Mainstream Politics?
The Greek election results of Sunday 21 May 2023 had a seismic effect, with many commentators juxtaposing them to the elections of 2015, when Syriza’s dramatic victory marked the overhaul of the pre-crisis political system. This time, the circle of crisis politics is said to be complete. Syriza’s devastating defeat with a margin just above 20% supposedly marks the end of a polarized era and the desire to return to ‘mainstream politics’. These elections made clear that there is currently no articulated, alternative vision of social ordering that could inspire and successfully challenge the current constellation of social forces.
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And Then the Cops Arrive
Al-Nakba, freedom of assembly, and the imposition of enduring the other
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Dann kommt die Polizei
Al-Nakba, Versammlungsfreiheit und die Zumutung des Aushaltenmüssens
Continue reading >>Finding a Constitutional Equilibrium
The beginnings of Georgian constitutionalism go back substantially to the first years of Georgia's first democratic republic (1918-1921). On 26 May 1918, Georgia declared itself independent from Russia, establishing a democratic republic and its first constitution in 1921. Arguably, it had recognized, collected and mixed the best possible practice of constitutional doctrines of the time. Although the current 1995 constitution bases its legitimacy on the first constitution, it was only through the constitutional reform of 2017-2018 that it was modernized to return to the achievements of the first Constitution of 1921.
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Strong on Hate Speech, Too Strict on Political Debate
Online hate speech is a topic that has gained importance in recent years. The Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) made an important ruling in this context on 15 May 2023 in Sanchez v. France. From a democratic theory and individual rights’ perspective, I would endorse the first decision because it tackles the so-called “silencing” and “desensitization effect” of hate speech. The second decision, however, runs the risk of adversely affecting free political debate, especially when individual politicians are called upon to delete comments by third parties.
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Media Pluralism in KRRiT-ical Condition
In April 2023, the Polish National Broadcasting Council, the so-called KRRiT, imposed a high fine on an indipendent media outlet. It was not the first fine of this kind to independent media organisations. The growing number of KRRiT decisions targeting independent media in Poland is the result of the political nature of the procedure for appointing members of the KRRiT and the broad, unclear legal basis for imposing fines. Since 2005, the decisive voice in the composition of the KRRiT was that of the ruling political majority. This blogpost analyzes and criticizes the vague legal framework for KRRiT and the institution's apparent political capture in recent years.
Continue reading >>Marriage Equality at the Doors of the Indian Supreme Court
A five-judge bench of the Supreme Court of India recently heard over 20 petitions seeking marriage equality. The significance of a positive declaration cannot be overstated. It would make India only the second country in Asia to recognize LGBTQ+ marriages. As India becomes the world’s most populous country this year, a favorable decision would also mean that an estimated 17.7% of the world’s population would come under a marriage equality regime which is more than the cumulative population of the 34 countries that currently recognize such marriages (17% of the global population).
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Data After Life
Contract law in Europe currently has little grasp on the balancing of interests of social media users, their heirs, platforms, and society at large, which means that platforms play a key role in determining how digital legacies are handled. A human rights perspective can offer starting points for reforms that do more justice to the protection of digital identities of social media users.
Continue reading >>Greece’s Ambivalent Turn to Militant Democracy
On 2 May 2023, the Greek Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) ruled on the certification of the candidate lists of the political parties that could lawfully participate in the Greek parliamentary elections of 21 May. It refused to certify the participation of the Hellenes National Party, the successor of the neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party. The refusal to certify the party breaks away from previous case law on political party certification and indicates a tentative, yet incomplete embrace of militant democracy by a jurisdiction that has traditionally been hostile towards its philosophy.
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Disney v. DeSantis Creates Strange Bedfellows
On April 26, 2023, Disney escalated its public feud with Ron DeSantis, Florida’s current Governor and a 2024 presidential hopeful, by suing him in federal court. The complaint turns on a series of legislative actions DeSantis took in response to Disney's criticism of the so-called “Don’t Say Gay” bill he championed. The context in which the case has arisen allows the corporation to frame itself a brave defender of LGBTQAI+ rights. In reality though, Disney is no liberal darling and its constitutional complaint opens the door to buttress and expand a conservative reading of several constitutional provisions.
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Monetising Harmful Content on Social Media
The possibility to profit from the dissemination of harmful content triggering views, engagement, and ultimately monetisation does not only concern the contractual relationship between social media and influencers, but also affects how other users enjoy digital spaces. The monetisation of harmful content by influencers should be a trigger, first, to expand the role of consumer law as a form of content regulation fostering transparency and, second, to propose a new regulatory approach to mitigate the imbalance of powers between influencers and users in social media spaces.
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Rethinking the Regulation of Financial Influencers
The growth of social media has led to an unprecedented rise in financial influencers, so-called finfluencers, who share investment ideas and opinions with a global audience, even if they are not qualified or licensed to provide financial advice. This can be particularly dangerous for retail investors with low levels of financial literacy. The regulation of financial influencers is a complex and multifaceted issue that demands a comprehensive approach; the current regulatory framework may not be adequate.
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Florida and the New Assault on LGBT Rights
On May 17, Governor Ron DeSantis signed into law a raft of bills that will dramatically change the legal landscape for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. While this marks the latest escalation of Florida's crusade against LGBT people, it is not an isolated case. As state legislative sessions across the United States draw to a close, the scope and severity of legislation regulating the lives of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people has been unprecedented. This post maps the scope and severity of the current anti-LGBT panic across the US, contextualizes its rise, and evaluates the potential for legal protection under the current state of the law.
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A Flawed Vote, Not a Horse Race
The elections in Turkey/Türkiye showed the dilemma for the political opposition in competitive authoritarian regimes: They have to create momentum for change. They must believe it is possible to win elections. If they don't believe this, their voters won't. It is difficult to avoid this dilemma, but there is something journalists, experts and officials from other countries can do: Always stress the unfairness of the conditions in which the elections are being held. Do not get a carried away by the excitement of the race. Focus on the fact that the race is not being run on level ground.
Continue reading >>A New European Enforcer?
As a key piece of the European Commission’s digital agenda, the Digital Services Act (DSA) is drawing a lot of attention from civil society, industry, and regulators. One particularly interesting development in that regard is the Commission’s current transformation from being the institution leading the DSA’s negotiations to the one enforcing it. This article explores the challenges faced by the Commission in this transformation.
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Pay to Play
The rise of subscription-based business models in social media is part of a broader trend that can be observed in many industries. Against this background, it is necessary to adapt European consumer law to the new risks of the subscription economy.However, it is not enough to give consumers rights on paper. Nor is it sufficient to inform consumers about their rights in the small print. Effective consumer protection in digital markets requires a user interface design that enables consumers to exercise their rights with a simple click.
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The Shape of Personalisation to Come
While targeted advertising is still a money-making machine for social media platforms, its motor has begun to sputter. However, with artificial intelligence, the potential is even greater for companies to discover and exploit biases and vulnerabilities in consumers that they themselves may not be aware of. The point of this dive into economic engineering of personalised environments on digital platforms is to highlight the intentional creation of algorithmically curated choice sets for consumers. How can the law ensure their fairness?
Continue reading >>A Non-Binary Approach to Platform-to-Business Transactions
Social media is a disruptive technology that has challenged fundamental distinctions in contract law, as social media contracts don't adequately reflect complex relationships between platforms, businesses, and consumers, among others. Contract law has the potential for greater sensitivity to contract classifications because different types of contractual relations invoke different values and trade-offs. Courts can better posit them in the spectrum between business and consumer contracts, while securing business users‘ unique interests
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The Contractual Rights and Obligations of Prosumers on Social Media Platforms
How can contract law contribute to a fair balance between the rights of prosumers and social media platforms? This contribution assesses the values that contract law should reflect, proposing the recognition of use value alongside the exchange value of products on the market. It then considers which mechanisms in contract law could be employed to do justice to both values.
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Including the Arms Sector in the EU Corporate Due Diligence Directive
The imminent passage of the EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) into law could drastically change the regulatory makeup of the civilian firearms industry in Europe. As the EU Parliament, Commission and Council prepare to enter the so-called ‘trilogues’ to adopt a final text, an open question is whether they will include the arms industry within the scope of the Directive. If so, the resulting provisions could include corporate due diligence obligations for downstream elements of the value chain, thus reinforcing monitoring and accountability. This post highlights the accountability deficit in the current European firearms export regime and shows how the CSDDD could help redress this situation while preventing trafficking and diversion.
Continue reading >>Digesting the (Not So) Free Lunches of Social Media
It has become common wisdom that “there is no such thing as free lunch.” Social media shows us daily how true this observation remains until today. The ‘conventional’ business model of these platforms focuses on data exploitation, and, increasingly, ‘freemium’ models. While it is obviously worthwhile to explore objectionable business practices in e-commerce and on social media, as 'freemium' models gain traction, this contribution suggests that the discourse on ‘dark patterns’ is somewhat sketchy and incomplete – and in need of more specificity.
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From Contract Law to Online Speech Governance
For years, contract law has been a hidden protagonist in the in the discourse on platform governance. he sound of this silence is especially salient against the backdrop of recent European case law that uses the contractual toolbox to infuse social media terms of service with fundamental rights, in particular the freedom of expression. In this way, contract law has produced – somewhat counterintuitively – one of the most telling responses to the key constitutional issue of social media: how to reconcile freedom of expression as a public value with the private nature of social media platforms.
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The Magic Bullet That Isn’t!
Article 17 of the European Union's Copyright Directive fails to effectively safeguard copyright exceptions, which can gravely undermine users’ freedom of expression in the digital public sphere. Against this backdrop, the enactment of Article 14 of the Digital Services Act offered fresh hope. Could it be the eagerly awaited ‘magic bullet’ that ensures effective protection of user rights to rely copyright exceptions to parody and quotation on social media platforms? The possibility of such an outcome is doubtful.
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Political Pluralism and the Camel’s Back
On 27 April, the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Christian Schmidt has unblocked the appointment of the government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by overriding the veto of the largest Bosniak party, SDA. The party, currently in opposition, had blocked the appointment of the government. Schmidt's move could be a welcome breakthrough – the country has been ridden by abuses of ethnic vetoes ever since the Dayton Agreement. However, this specific imposition may have detrimental consequences for the future of political pluralism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and any parties which want to outgrow the existing ethnic division.
Continue reading >>Personalized Law and Social Media
Personalization — a paradigm that has been widely and successfully embraced in other areas of human activity, and primarily on social media — may be ready for the law. Social media as a data source to support personalized law is only suitable for a few areas if life. In those areas, however, personalized standards bear enormous potential.
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National Dialogues as Constitutional Moments
In April 2022, Egypt's President Al-Sisi announced a surprising call for a “political dialogue on national priorities during the current phase.” The announcement formed part of a broader package of reforms that the Egyptian government seemingly initiated, following years of sustained criticism over its human rights record. After a year-long wait, the National Dialogue launched on May 3, 2023. This post will explain why despite some promising features, it is unlikely to effectuate meaningful change, due to certain design flaws and the decision by its Board to preclude the possibility of constitutional change.
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The Invisible Contract
Many users do not realize that by creating a social media account, they are entering into a legally binding agreement with the platform. It might thus be time to radically rethink the principle of contractual informality online. Social media contracts may regain their importance, and users might become more aware of the contractual implications of clicking on the ‘I Agree’ button.
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Social Media Contracts – The Quest for Fairness and the Need for Reform
The social media landscape is changing. The ‚public forum‘ is now filled with citizens selling products, promoting services, charging for subscriptions, and sometimes seeking attention in ways which may not be socially desirable. We ask: How can a space that is becoming increasingly commercialised, monetised, and is a source of income for many nevertheless be fair?
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Please Be Kind and Polite. Or Else…
Britain loves to project an image of polite calmness; of a stiff upper lip; of tea, crumpets, and lashings of ginger beer. The Paddington the Bear Twitter account epitomised this sentiment on the morning of the Coronation, reminding people to ‘be kind and polite today.’ Yet in England's green and pleasant land, as loyal British subjects scoffed their scones, quaffed their Pimm’s and raised a glass to their new Monarch, it was not soft-power but good ol’ fashioned state violence that ensured the historical Coronation went off without a hitch.
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Lithium and Constitutional Change
On 20 April 2023, Chile’s President Gabriel Boric addressed the nation to announce the highly anticipated National Lithium Strategy. Boric announced the creation of a National Lithium Company (which must be enacted by Congress) and the establishment of public-private joint ventures, with a prominent role for the government. His speech began by referencing the nationalization of copper in the late 1960s and its completion in 1971 under President Salvador Allende. The new lithium strategy has to be understood as something more than merely an economic proposal. It is part of a larger and elusive effort to reconfigure the State.
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Strawberry Fields Forever
Reading the brilliant blog post of my colleague Teresa Navarro, one may get the impression that the situation in Doñana is principally the epitome of an ongoing electoral process. However, the threats to the ecological integrity of that unique natural space emanate from the very origins that justified its protection. The current crisis is but the culmination of the constant and serious threats, caused by the proposed bill to legalize new irrigation and aggravated by incompetence and lack of responsibility of the state, regional and local authorities ignoring the requirements of EU law.
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The Dilemma of Technocracy
A few months before general elections that might result in Slovakia joining Hungary's and Poland's illiberal takeover in Central Europe, its technocratic government is in crisis. This post shows how the weaknesses of Slovakia’s constitutional design have fueled the present malaise, and details the lessons we should draw from it for ordering the relationship between the head of state, parliament and the executive in other parliamentary systems with a directly elected president.
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The National Case for Reforming the EU Treaties
Four arguments of either explicit or implicit importance in encouraging states to engage in Treaty reform in this ‘reform period’ are of decisive importance again now. Many of these arguments have already found their way into political discourse (for example into the cautious opening of the German government to Treaty reform) while others have not. The key to making the national case for Treaty reform may therefore lie in demonstrating to the Member States that these factors make opening-up the Treaties in their national interest.
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The Local Case Against Climate Deception
Over the last five years, cities, counties, and states across the country have sued fossil fuel companies alleging that the companies violated state law in marketing their products as safe. Collectively, these cases are known as climate liability cases or climate deception cases. On April 24, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear a petition on whether the climate liability cases should be heard in state or federal court. As a result, 11 cases will be remanded to state court to move towards motions to dismiss, discovery, and trial. The Supreme Court’s decision also helps plaintiffs in more than a dozen other cases argue that their cases against fossil fuel companies should be heard in state court, rather than federal court, and it may help spur more state court filings. This is a big win for the city, county, and state plaintiffs, after they engaged in a five-year fight to keep the cases in state court.
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A Problem of Our Own Making
In 2023, Packers Sanitation paid a fine of $1.5 million for employing over 100 children in work environments involving dangerous machinery and chemicals across eight US states. A New York Times investigation also uncovered the prevalence of migrant children working in numerous industries across the US, including Ford, General Motors, J. Crew, Walmart, Ben and Jerry's, Whole Foods, and Target. Child labor has been identified in small and large companies nationwide, bringing the issue to national and international attention. Why has there been an increase in child labor across the US? In many ways, this is the wrong question. Child labor has been a persistent problem in the US for decades.
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No Bad Surprises
Just because they're after you don't mean you gotta be paranoid.
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Keine bösen Überraschungen
Nur weil sie hinter dir her sind, heißt das noch lange nicht, dass du paranoid sein musst.
Continue reading >>Can the Mexican Supreme Court Save Constitutional Democracy?
The last week of the legislative term in Mexico was just another showcase of the clear government's disdain for democratic institutions and the rule of law. At the end of April, MORENA, the party in government, used its legislative majorities to hastily pass a series of laws in violation of different procedural rules, including quorum rules. The episode described above isn’t uncommon in Mexico’s legislative politics. The quality of the political-constitutional discourse is in great need of improvement to prevent such episodes from happening. It seems that the Supreme Court is the only institution that could contribute (and has been trying to contribute) to repair it. However, in the current political environment, Supreme Court interventions in political processes are becoming increasingly dangerous to the extent that its survival is at stake.
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Trading Rights for Responsibility
The newly published compromise text of the Asylum Procedures Regulation (APR) suggests to render border procedures mandatory in some cases, while also permitting first-entry states to derogate from them once their “adequate capacity” is reached. This adaptable approach to the use of border procedures seeks to resolve a long-standing disagreement between central EU countries and first-entry states. While the former consider the obligatory use of border procedures necessary to prevent onwards or ‘secondary’ movement of asylum-seekers, southern EU states argue that their mandatory use would place a further strain on their resources and overburden their capacities for processing asylum claims. This blogpost first explains the problems with border procedures, reviews their role in increasing responsibility of first-entry states, and explains why the new compromise Draft is unlikely to resolve the disagreement between first-entry states and other Members States.
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Squaring the triangle of fundamental rights concerns
Ex ante, the July 2022 ruling by the Court of Justice of the EU on Passenger Name Records had a very specific scope — the use of passenger name records by government agencies. Upon closer inspection, however, it has important implications for the governance of algorithms more generally. That is true especially for the proposed AI Act, which is currently working its way through the EU institutions. It highlights, ultimately, how national, or in this case European, legal orders may limit the scope for international regulatory harmonization and cooperation.
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Automated predictive threat detection after Ligue des Droits Humains
The Ligue des droits humains ruling regarding automated predictive threat detection has implications for the European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) Regulation and the EU Commission’s proposal for a Regulation on combating online child sexual abuse material (CSAM). Both legal instruments entail the use of potentially self-learning algorithms, and are spiritual successors to the PNR Directive (the subject of Ligue des droits humains).
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EU Privacy and Public-Private Collaboration
Core state functions, such as law enforcement, are increasingly delegated to private actors. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the development and use of security technologies. This public-private collaboration harbours detrimental consequences for fundamental rights and the rule of law; in particular, for the principle of legality. The policy outcomes which result from this collaboration are not democratically accountable, and allow human rights to be superseded by private, profit-driven interests.
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Challenging Bias and Discrimination in Automated Border Decisions
In Ligue des droits humains, the Court of Justice of the European Union explicitly addresses the fact that the use of AI and self-learning risk models may deprive data subjects of their right to effective judicial protection as enshrined in the Charter. The importance of this judgment cannot be understated for non-EU citizens and at the European borders more generally.
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Betrayal
Various EU bodies have started to appreciate the threat the anti-constitutional challenge poses to fundamental rights and the entire EU. The Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), the body primarily tasked with watching over fundamental rights, chose a different path and committed to collaboration and to legitimizing an illiberal regime. As earlier contributors to FRA reports on Hungary, we felt the responsibility to call attention to this unfortunate development: The FRA recently committed to rely on reporting from two governmental-controlled institutions, the National University of Public Service and the Hungarian ombudsperson.
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Effective Human Rights Due Diligence Ten Years After Rana Plaza?
Ten years after the deadly Rana Plaza disaster with 1135 dead and more than 2000 injured workers, a complaint has been made for the first time on the basis of the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence Obligations in Supply Chains (Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtengesetz, LkSG) to the Federal Office for Economic Affairs and Export Control (Bundesamt für Wirtschaft und Ausfuhrkontrolle, BAFA). The complaint argues that IKEA and Amazon failed to exercise due diligence under the LkSG by refusing to sign the Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh (Bangladesh Accord) and its successor, the International Accord for Health and Safety in the Textile and Garment Industry (International Accord). In this post, we explore the relationship between the Accord and human rights due diligence and argue that joining the Accord is essential for fulfilling the due diligence obligations under the LkSG. We argue that Amazon seems to have violated the LkSG prima facie while IKEA’s claim would have to be assessed in-depth by BAFA.
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Foreseeability and the Rule of Law in Data Protection after the PNR judgment
The rule of law cannot be reconciled with the existence of secret laws, unclear laws and laws which cannot be obeyed. However, this may be difficult to realise in practice, where full transparency is at odds with the legislative goals; where a certain degree of flexibility of rules is necessary to address changing circumstances, in which these rules function; and where a disconnect occurs between the visions of the lawmaker and reality created by modern technologies that are utilized to pursue them. The CJEU's ruling in Lige des droits humains on Passenger Name Record Directive underscores the difficulty of foreseeability of algorithmic measures and the rule of law.
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The European Legal Architecture on Security
As the European legal architecture on internal security is being built around large-scale databases, AI tools and other new technologies, the relationship between the public and private sectors has become increasingly complex. We examine one aspect of the Court of Justice of the European Union’s recent judgment in Ligue des droits humains, namely the data protection rules applicable to cooperation between the public and private entities in personal data sharing. The judgment enhances the ‘personal data autonomy’ of individuals and requires public authorities to justify to a high standard any obligations it seeks to place on the private sector to share personal data related, directly or indirectly, to travel by air.
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Taiwan’s Participatory Plans for Platform Governance
Platform regulation is not limited to Europe or the United States. Although much debate currently focuses on the latest news from Brussels, California, or Washington, other important regulatory ideas emerge elsewhere. One particularly consequential idea can be found in Taiwan. Simply put, Taiwan wants to, tacitly, democratize platform governance. Concretely, Taiwan wanted to establish a dedicated body that would potentially facilitate far-reaching civil society participation and enable ongoing citizen involvement in platform governance. This article explains what discourses about platform governance can learn from Taiwan and how vivid democratic discourse shapes platform governance beyond traditional regulatory models.
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50 Years of Kesavananda Bharti
India is celebrating the 50th anniversary of the landmark Kesavananda Bharti decision this year, which concretized the ‘basic structure doctrine’. Created by the judiciary in response to an overzealous executive branch, it stipulates that the legislature cannot damage or destroy the basic features of the Constitution that are fundamental to its identity. This blogpost explains the circumstances of the doctrine's inception, its substance and controversies as well as its continued importance for Indian democracy.
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Caution: Safeguards may appear more robust than they are
At a time when the European security architecture is evolving, and when national lawmakers must pay greater attention to an evolving set of common standards and safeguards to prevent disproportionate government access to data, it is essential to shed critical light on their implementation in actual practice. As different as the EU PNR Directive and the German legal framework are, they both include provisions that seek to prevent disproportionate government access and to ensure effective and independent review of data collection and subsequent data processing.
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Of Red Fruits and Social Conflict
These days of electoral campaign in Spain, as usual, water is among the current issues. Recently, a controversial proposal by the conservative parties of the Andalusian Parliament aims to re-grant the status of agricultural land to certain land in the vicinity of the Doñana National Park (Huelva, Spain). Doñana suffers a long social conflict triggered by several decisions adopted to protect this singular place. As we will see, this is a clear example of the political use of the tension generated by environmental protection and socio-economic interests, especially in times of elections.
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Chile or the Impossibility of a Constitution
The second act of Chile’s constituent process is ready to begin. Elections for the 50 members of the Constituent Council, in charge of drafting the text of a new constitution, took place this Sunday, May 7. The results, a clear victory for the far-right Republicanos, may come as a surprise to many. Is it?
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Passengers Name Records and Security
The EU Passenger Name Records Directive is based on the logic of preventive security. Th CJEU ruling, Ligue des droits humains, offers an opportunity for national judges to question more radically the idea of generalised preventive security that seeks to anticipate human behaviour through the creation of risk profiles and statistical correlations (instead of causality).
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World War 2 Memories in Lithuania and Ukraine
On May 8, 2023, Lithuania and Ukraine, along with other European countries, meet the annual anniversaries of the end of World War 2 in Europe in 1945. Meanwhile, Russia holds a national holiday tomorrow on May 9 to commemorate the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany, which is the most important holiday in Russia and became a cult practice for uniting Russians after 2000. The anniversary finds Ukraine in the midst of fighting off present-day Russian aggression. Lithuania finds itself worrying about its defense, dealing with memory incidents and among the biggest supporters of Ukraine. Russia, however, finds itself more isolated than ever and scaling back the celebration: According to Moscow because of expected ‘drone strikes’, but more likely due to ‘fear of popular protests.’ This blog entry takes stock of legal measures by two nations to countervail Russia’s decades-long mnemo-political aggressiveness.
Continue reading >>Machine learning and profiling in the PNR system
Automated processing of personal data, which is what Passenger Name Record data are, can lead to forms of profiling; certain individuals or groups of people are more likely to be excluded based on the transfer of their data than others. In its Passenger Name Record judgment, the CJEU extensively discusses discrimination risks, and it set a number of conditions to prevent them. Unfortunately, not all of its considerations are perfectly clear and some of the solutions the CJEU proposes are not entirely satisfactory.
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Automated predictive threat detection after Ligue des Droits Humains
On 21 June 2022, the Court of Justice of the European Union released its judgment regarding the compatibility of the EU Directive on Passenger Name Record Data with the rights to privacy and personal data protection. Ligue des droits humains has already qualified as a landmark decision, where the Court had the opportunity, among other aspects, to provide comprehensive guidelines on how large-scale predictive policing should take place. The ruling could be used as an inspiration for the legal assessment of various new security law instruments which require automated predictive threat detection instruments.
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Accountability in Brazil
The end of Jair Bolsonaro’s presidency is far from marking a return to normality in Brazil. After the riots of 8 January, which aimed to create the conditions for a coup in Brazil, authorities and institutions had to deal with several turbulences and the issue of Bolsonaro's responsibilization has been a permanent concern. To evaluate the efficacy of these responses, it is important to discuss how these institutions have been dealing with Jair Bolsonaro’s legacy. Moreover, it is equally important to understand the challenges President Lula is facing, which are partly due to the difficulty to reach political compromises. The recent police raids that seized documents and devices in Bolsonaro’s house, and arrested some of his direct aids, adds complexity to the situation, as we will attempt to explain.
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The Future of the European Security Architecture: A Debate Series
This debate series is dedicated to Ligue des Droits Humains – a case in which the Court of Justice of the European Union decided on the fate of one of the main drivers of this development: the Directive on on the use of passenger name record (PNR) data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime. The PNR Directive, being one of the first major EU-wide examples of predictive policing, is not just interesting in itself. It exemplifies the emergence and gradual consolidation of a new security architecture in Europe.
Continue reading >>Vivat Rex
Der neue König ist kein moderner Mann. Und wenn das eine gute Nachricht wäre?
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The UK vs the ECtHR
In recent months, the UK government has tabled two Bills - the Bill of Rights Bill and the Illegal Migration Bill - before Parliament which would have the consequence - and almost certainly have the intention - of setting the UK on a collision course with the Council of Europe, and especially the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). This post details how these Bills serve to undermine the UK’s obligations under the ECHR and explains their significance within the larger debate surrounding the UK’s possible withdrawal from the Convention. It places this debate in the context of the rarely-convened Council of Europe summit of heads of state and government in Reykjavik in May 2023, whose ambitious agenda is to protect the ‘common heritage’ of respect for human rights, democracy and the rule of law in the face of Russia’s aggression in Ukraine and other existential threats.
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On the Path of Destruction
Sudan has yet gain slipped into a civil war, costing hundreds of lives and forcing tens of thousands of people to flee the country. Fighting the war are two generals - Abdel Fattah Burhan of the Sudan's Armed Forces and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo of the Rapid Support Forces. This piece explains the background of this extraordinarily complex conflict and discusses its potential implications for the region and beyond. Bringing both military leaders to a negotiating table must now be the highest priority.
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Rechtslosigkeitsrecht
Jahrelange Unmenschlichkeit, und jetzt zum ersten Mal ein Urteil
Continue reading >>Lawlessness Law
Years of inhuman treatment, and now, for the first time, a judgment
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Judicial Backlash Against the Rights of Nature in Ecuador
In 2008, Ecuador surprised the world by recognizing nature’s own rights in its constitution. The surprise was even bigger when Ecuador unlike other countries began to actually apply and enforce the Rights of Nature, particularly through constitutional jurisprudence since 2019. We show that the strong constitutional precedents, while casting much appreciated light on some legal uncertainties about the novel set of rights, are also met with defiance. Backlashing tendencies are not restricted to the private sector and the government, but are articulated within the judiciary itself
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The Ukrainian Grain Imports Saga
Poland and Hungary, later joined by Bulgaria, Slovakia and Romania, decided to unilaterally halt the imports of grain and other food products from Ukraine to protect their domestic farmers. The European Commission quickly announced that “trade policy is of EU exclusive competence and, therefore, unilateral actions are not acceptable”. At the same, however, the Commission’s spokesperson also considered that it was “too early” to comment on the legal implications of the Member States’ actions. Instead, the Commission adopted a pragmatic approach. It quickly announced a new support package for EU farmers affected by the increased supply of Ukrainian agricultural products and proposed additional measures to ensure the transit of Ukrainian grain exports to destinations outside of the Union. Significantly, it also added that this package “is subject to Member States lifting their unilateral measures”. This creates a very cynical situation, in the sense that an infringement of EU law may be instrumental to reach a better deal.
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A Conservative Constitutional Council Watching over a Conservative Constitution
On 14 April 2023, the French Constitutional Council handed down its decisions on the constitutionality of the controversial pension reform and on the referendum that was supposed to stop it. In substance, the decisions were met with little surprise. What is noteworthy about them, however, is something else: Both decisions are excellent indicators of the profoundly conservative nature of the French Constitution and of the judges watching over its observance.
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Environmental Intelligence and the Need to Collect it
Current studies by biologists attest that Earth’s overall biodiversity is “crashing”. The most recent IPCC findings are no less dire. Multilateral deals aimed at preserving the environment are coming and going without having anything close to adequate results on the ground. States worldwide are currently missing not just a quickly receding opportunity to change things for the better, but also the rapidly growing and truly unprecedented threat which broad-scale anthropogenic ecological decline represents. But we are pragmatically and ethically obliged not to give up on the prospect of renovating and revitalizing the state so that it might become, over time, a more beneficial and truly survival-interested form of itself. One part of the inner power structure of almost all countries globally which recommends itself for a new role in this context is the national intelligence agency.
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Flexible Responsibility or the End of Asylum Law as We Know It?
On March 21 2023, the Council released a revised draft proposal for an Asylum and Migration Management Regulation (AMMR). It reintroduces the concept of ‘flexible responsibility’ — or ‘adaptable responsibility’ — into the EU’s migration management. Already included in the controversial Instrumentalisation Regulation of 14 December 2021, flexible responsibility is the idea that Member States should be allowed to derogate from normally applicable asylum standards when faced with sudden migratory pressures. While the Instrumentalisation Regulation was rejected in December 2022, this post will detail how the new AMMR draft threatens to reintroduce the idea of flexible/adaptable derogations — including, potentially, those originally foreseen in the Instrumentalisation Regulation — into the EU’s asylum framework and why we should reject it.
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If the EU Picks Baby Genes
Which genes should children not inherit? This is a fundamental question. It arises acutely in medically assisted reproduction, such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF) or artificial insemination. One must frequently choose between different donors, sperm, eggs or embryos. The EU wishes to draw this line. However, Its proposed Substances of Human Origin Regulation (‘SoHO’) treads into delicate ethical and political territory, without properly addressing, or even mentioning, crucial ethical questions. This leads the EU to silently take three controversial positions: the proposal excludes most ethical considerations; it draws the line vaguely and below existing ethical standards; and it makes genetic selection mandatory in genetically assisted reproduction.
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Education as Indoctrination: Mnemonic Constitutionalism and History Teaching in Russia
In January 2023, Russia adopted new amendments to the Law "On Education in the Russian Federation" which will become effective by September 1st, 2023. The amendments establish mandatory, federal curricula for the following school subjects: "Russian language", "Literary reading", "The world around", "Russian language", "Literature", "History", "Social science", "Geography" and "Basics of life safety". The content of the curricula was developed and pre-approved by the Ministry of Education in November 2022, and aims to establish a single, uniform standard of teaching for these subjects. The amendments are emblematic of Russia’s increasingly aggressive pursuit of mnemonic constitutionalism. This article will detail how its legislative governance of memory in the context of history teaching violates the right to education enshrined in international human rights law.
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Investing Immobilized Russian Assets, Monetarizing the Common Foreign and Security Policy
Again, the Commission and EU Member States are talking about new sanctions against Russia. The focus, according to Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, should be on tackling sanctions circumvention and loopholes. In a scoop, however, it was also uncovered that the Commission has drawn up a non-paper “on the generation of resources to support Ukraine from immobilized Russian assets”. The idea behind this non-paper is to invest the immobilized assets of the Russian Central Bank in EU Member States’ bonds and bills and use the proceeds to support the reconstruction of Ukraine. The plan, as the non-paper indicates, is fraught with a number of legal and technical issues. These do not only relate to the question of whether or not such an investment of immobilized assets is compatible with international law and EU law, but also to the question of who should undertake and oversee these investments.
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The Cost of Taking Time
A liberal Minister of Justice, a social-democratic Home Secretary, and the anxious view to Weimar
Continue reading >>Die Kosten des Sich-Zeit-Nehmens
Ein liberaler Justizminister, eine sozialdemokratische Innensenatorin und der bange Blick nach Weimar
Continue reading >>Intersectionality in Climate Litigation
The ECtHR held a hearing in the case KlimaSeniorinnen v Switzerland. It is one of the first gender-based climate cases worldwide. The case offers novel perspectives on a range of issues. Crucially, it highlights new potential avenues for standing in human rights cases and pinpoints how age, health, gender, and climate change intersect.
Continue reading >>Context Is Open to Interpretation, Too
Taiwan is no longer ‘The Orphan of Asia’ as depicted in a 1983 mandarin Chinese pop song that gave expression to the Taiwanese’ feelings of betrayal and abandonment, after the US ‘recognize[d] the Government of the People’s Republic of China [PRC] as the sole legal Government of China’ in 1979 and withdrew its troops from the island. Today Taiwan is one of the most discussed geopolitical hotspots. In this contribution, I aim to take the discussion of Taiwan’s legal status forward in response to Wu and Lin’s outright rejection of the Resolution’s bearing on the Taiwan question, by drawing attention to the complexity of the context in which the Resolution was adopted.
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Achmea Goes to Washington
Recently, a US District Court trashed a Dutch company's arbitral award against Spain. Why? Because investor-state arbitration within the EU violates European law. Yet, many tribunals keep issuing arbitral awards - especially under the infamous Energy Charta Treaty. Challenging those awards in domestic courts outside the EU, like here in Washington D.C., might work as corrective to the continuing illegal assumption of jurisdiction and blatant disregard for the EU Treaties by arbitral tribunals.
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Closure and Continuity
Trade, sovereignty, rights and freedoms, courts, and constitutional change are lenses through which we can examine how two politically, culturally, and linguistically inextricably linked common law countries have defined their diverging relationship with the EU. 50 years on the divergence is complete. The UK is now a third country, charting a future outside the EU, while Ireland remains one of 27 Member States reporting high levels of trust and support for the EU. Hence 50 years on we have both the desire for closure (for the UK) and continuity (for Ireland). In fact, we argue that closure and continuity are necessary for the relations between both states and their relationship with the EU now and in the next half century.
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New Digital Gates for Fortress Europe?
On March 29th, the Permanent Representatives Committee approved the EU Council's negotiating mandate for a Regulatory proposal to digitalize the Visa procedure. Proponents argue that this move will improve security and reduce administrative costs for both EU Member States and interested travellers. However, I argue that the Draft Regulation raises many concerns about the effective protection of the fundamental rights of Schengen visa applicants. If adopted, it threatens to perpetuate the subordination of fundamental rights to security and efficiency concerns that characterizes the increasing digitalization and datafication of EU migration management operations.
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Whispers of Change (Vol. II)
Mexico’s prolonged refusal to eliminate mandatory preventive detention from its legal system has slowly but steadily contributed to the rising tension between the Mexican Supreme Court, the Mexican State, and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. Following both Courts’ recent decisions on the case of García Rodríguez y Alpízar Ortíz v. México (both have recently decided cases concerning virtually the same set of facts with notoriously varying outcomes), the discussion heats as it now relates to one of the most relevant inquiries of modern constitutional study: judicial review of constitutional provisions and amendments.
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Up Close and Personal
The Private and the Public in the Doepfner Affair
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Attention Is All You Need
Das Verbot ChatGPTs durch die italienische Datenschutzbehörde bietet Gelegenheit einen Klassiker neu aufzulegen: Eine bahnbrechende, Technologie aus dem Silicon Valley zerschellt am harten Beton des Brüsseler Datenschutzregimes. Während einige technikkritische Stimmen laut applaudieren, prügeln andere auf das vermeintlich innovationsfeindliche Datenschutzrecht ein. Doch gibt ChatGPT tatsächlich Anlass für derart fundamentale datenschutzrechtliche Bedenken im Hinblick auf generative KIs?
Continue reading >>Taiwan and the Myth of UN General Assembly Resolution 2758
At the United Nations (UN) press briefing by the Office of the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on 27 March 2023, critical and long-overdue questions resurfaced. With the Secretary General portrayed as a champion for democratic values, why has the UN shut the door on Taiwan, the most democratic country in Asia? Why are citizens of Taiwan not even allowed to enter the premises of the United Nations? Questions as such touch upon the scope and application of UN General Assembly Resolution 2758, and the implications of China’s persistent strategy to inflate and distort it.
Continue reading >>(No) News from East Africa
Whilst the Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill is unconstitutional and should not be recognized by the national courts, the initiation of such a bill already catalyses tremendous consequences for the community. Further, considering the historical context of this Bill and realising the political expediency that drives the promotion bills like this this will certainly not be the end of developments in Uganda (and beyond). This is why it is critical that human rights defenders across the continent anticipate these setbacks and plan for contingencies.
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A Glimpse into More Equitable International Governance
On March 29, the United Nations General Assembly passed a landmark resolution asking the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion on state obligations relating to climate change and the consequences of breaching them under several sources of international law, including the UN Charter, human rights treaties, and international customary law. The import of both the request and the opinion, however, is not just about Earth’s climate system and the extent of state obligations for protecting it; it is also about the potential for more equitable, just, and effective international governance.
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Colombia, a Besieged Democracy with (New) Oligarchic Tendencies?
On 20 March, Colombia’s newly formed government suspended the cease fire it had only recently concluded with the Clan de Golfo, one of the country’s most powerful, remaining armed non-state actor (ANSA). The announcement followed repeated attacks against civilians in the country’s North-West ascribed to the group. Not even ten days later, the largest remaining guerrilla group, the ELN (also engaged in the government’s Total Peace initiative), killed nine soldiers in an attack in the frontier region with Venezuela. This blogpost details what distinguishes these post-FARC and post-AUC Armed Non State Actors from their predecessors and how their emergence threatens to ensure that Colombia remains a besieged democracy, despite all the progress it has made.
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Democracy, Sovereignty and Europe
Fifty years after Ireland and UK joined the EEC together in January 1973, the two states find themselves on radically different European trajectories. Both are common law countries with shared traditions of parliamentary governance and strong cultural links to the wider Anglosphere. However, in Ireland there is broad elite and popular support for maintaining alignment with the requirements of EU and ECHR law – while, in the UK, such European influences trigger a sharp allergic reaction. What explains this dramatic divergence? The answer perhaps lies partially in the differing ‘constitutional imaginaries’ of Ireland and the UK, and how EU and ECHR alignment is understood to impact on the exercise of popular sovereignty in both states.
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Integration as Disintegration
50 years after accession of Ireland and the UK to the EEC and seven years after the disastrous Brexit referendum, Ireland still sits pretty in the EU, but the UK and its Constitution have been called into possibly fatal doubt, especially as regards their integrative capacity, or continuing ability to bind distinct political classes and the nations of the Union to one another. Writing in early 2023, amidst the ruins of a Brexit reality, if not the end of the Brexit delusion, this short commentary foresees – possibly foolishly – a radical future of independent nations within a loose ‘Confederation of the Isles’, wherein Ireland might share some (symbolic) competences with Scotland, England and Wales, enabling a peaceful a prosperous coexistence within the North-western European archipelago.
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Short Detention, Long Shadow
Several videos show the arrest of Clara Ponsatí last Tuesday in the streets of Barcelona, a Member of the European Parliament (MEP). Separatist politicians have forcefully condemned the arrest as an ‘attack on democracy’, ‘political violence’, ‘repression’ and ‘abuse of power’, while also asserting an egregious violation of an MEP’s immunity. This piece argues that the arrest warrant issued by the Tribunal Supremo on 28 March 2023 does not hold up against established constitutional principles.
Continue reading >>Squaring the Circle
The Italian Data Protection Authority banned ChatGPT for violating EU data protection law. As training and operating large language models like ChatGPT requires massive amounts of (personal) data, AI's future in Europe, to an extent, hinges upon the GDPR.
Continue reading >>Corporate Duty of Vigilance and Environment
On February 23, 2023, French bank BNP Paribas was sued before the civil tribunal in Paris for having allegedly breached its environmental duty of vigilance. In particular, deficiencies in the vigilance plan related to the allocation fundraising activities are criticized. This climate litigation, involving a French bank for the first time, could increase the liability of financial protagonists in the fight against climate change if it succeeded. Nevertheless, one may doubt that the case against BNP Paribas will prove to be successful, as previous ones – which had been introduced under the 2017 law of vigilance (LdV) – are all either pending or unsuccessful.
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Constitutional Change in the UK – People or Party?
The UK’s membership of, and later exit from, the EU has had a dramatic effect on the UK constitution. It also provided a catalyst for further change. These demonstrate the relative ease with which the UK constitution can be modified, reinforcing the UK’s characterisation as a predominantly political, flexible constitution. This post will argue that these transformations illustrate something more fundamental that applies to all constitutions – be they predominantly codified or uncodified, with or without the ability of the courts to strike down unconstitutional legislation.
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In Jerusalem my Heart wanted to Scream out: “I am Polin, too” …
I went to Israel at a moment’s notice to share the lessons and cautionary tales of anti-constitutional capture in Poland and to explain the mechanics behind systemic and legalistic dismantling of the liberal foundations of the legal order. However, during my stay in Israel, I realized that as much the Israelis wanted to learn from me, they might as well teach Poles crucial lessons, not less these of civic engagement and mobilization.
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Turkey’s Envisioned Exit from Authoritarianism
Turkey has been ruled by the AKP under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s leadership for more than 20 years. Throughout this time, Erdoğan got almost total control over state administration and judiciary, and enchained the media and big capital owners to himself. The Nation Alliance vows to change the political regime from executive presidentialism to parliamentary democracy in case it should defeat Erdoğan on May 14. In that regard, Turkey will turn over a new leaf in its Republican history, if, for the first time, a regime change would take place through a civilian transition.
Continue reading >>Humanizing Warfare as a Project of Power Politics and Colonial Exclusion
The myth of the Geneva Conventions as a liberal, inclusive project has been thoroughly deconstructed. Two recent books, Boyd van Dijk's "Preparing for War. The Making of the Geneva Conventions" and Hugo Slim's "Solferino 21. Warfare, Civilians and Humanitarians in the Twenty-First Century" delve into the history of the humanitarian project and shed light on its imperial and postcolonial contexts. A review essay.
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Imposing Brexit onto Northern Ireland’s Post-Conflict Governance Order
The Westphalian state provides for an all-but ubiquitous building block of governance. It stacks neatly into dominant accounts of multi-level governance, with all states being presented as nominal equals on the plain of international law. Where reasons of scale or the needs of diverse societies require, sub-state levels of governance can be introduced into the equation. Multiple states, moreover, can pool aspects of their law and decision making where they see the advantages of so doing, resulting in regional supra-national bodies such as the EU.
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In Law as in Life?
On New Year’s Day in 2002, my late uncle, visiting us in Kerry at the time, walked to the local shop and came back with a pristine €5 note for everyone in the house. Spend it, keep it, do whatever you like with it; but this, he said, is history. Ireland adopting the euro as its currency marked one of the most significant divergent choices in the history of British and Irish membership of the European Union. The dense and complicated ties between the two states were otherwise reflected in so many ways across their EU membership profiles, from their coterminous application paths to shared exemptions from certain legal obligations.
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Frozen
After years of inaction, the European Commission and Council jointly acted to freeze EU funds totaling more than €28.7 billion for Hungary and more than €110 billion for Poland at the end of 2022, citing rule-of-law violations. Surprisingly, the decisions were taken not just (or even primarily) using the new Conditionality Regulation designed for that purpose. Instead, they used a variety of other legal tools to which rule-of-law conditionality was attached. It remains somewhat mysterious, however, precisely which funds and what proportion of those funds have been suspended, and how those suspensions have been legally justified. This post, a shorter version of a SIEPS paper that will be published soon, describes what we know about the complex set of funding suspensions intended to make EU Member States pay for their rule-of-law violations.
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Rahul Gandhi’s Disqualification and the Future of Political Opposition in India
With the general elections scheduled for early next year and several crucial state elections lined up for later this year, the ruling party’s onslaught on their opposition continues in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party (“BJP”) government has left no channel of state power unused in its crusade against opposition parties. The disqualification of Rahul Gandhi – one of the most prominent leaders of the opposition from the India National Congress (“INC”) – is another episode of the degeneration of democracy in India.
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A Fond Embrace?
As with any relationship, significant anniversaries offer us an opportunity to take stock. Looking backwards allows us not only to appreciate how far we have come, but also, perhaps, to reflect on the direction in which we might be heading. To date, upwards of 2,200 judgments of the Irish courts have considered EU or Community law in some form. Against this context, this short contribution reflects on the reception of EU law in the Irish courts since 1973.
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The Battle Over the Populist Constitutional Coup in Israel
On the night of March 26, 2023, the battle over the constitutional overhaul planned by Israel’s Netanyahu government reached an apex moment. Much uncertainty lies ahead. What is clear is that a combination of massive protests, pressure by significant groups in Israeli society such as the tech industry and elite military reservists, and American pressure forced Netanyahu to suspend the legislative process. Whether this development will lead to the burial or the reemergence of the constitutional coup is yet to be seen. The road ahead is complicated, as rejection of the coalition’s plan, while seemingly a victory for the democracy movement, may also serve to feed the populist argument about elites.
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Number Crunching EU Law and the Irish Legal Order
In this short piece, I will outline a few of the extremes of the Irish relationship with Europe that I have personally studied or encountered and its impact in my view. Many years ago, I wrote a dissertation on the relationship between EU law and the Irish legal order, on the unravelling dynamic since accession, focussing upon the preliminary reference data. I felt it was a deserving topic precisely because there was so little interest as to the relationship between EU law and Ireland. Ireland was uniformly always excluded from major US and EU political science studies that have been iconic in shaping views on EU integration.
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How EU Membership Transformed Ireland’s Socio-Legal Norms: The Case of Abortion
In 1973, Ireland joined what would become the European Union (EU) in the first ever enlargement of the project of European integration. To say that 50 years of EU membership have been transformative for Ireland is an understatement. By all benchmarks considered, Ireland is a radically different country today than it was when it joined the EU. Abortion provides the best example of this.
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The Council’s Conditionality Decision as a Violation of Academic Freedom?
On 15 December 2022, the Council’s suspended various EU budgetary commitments towards Hungary, the first application of the so-called Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation. The measure also froze access to Erasmus+ and Horizon Europe funds for 21 Hungarian universities that remain under the management of public interest trusts, thereby effectively denying access to these funds to a large pool of scholars and students. The decision raises important questions regarding the scope of protection afforded to final beneficiaries of EU funds. We suggest that a deeper engagement with the rights and interests of final beneficiaries in the context of the Conditionality Regulation necessitates a reconceptualisation of the EU’s understanding of and responsibility for academic freedom.
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Navigating Uncharted Waters?
This contribution will briefly assess Ireland’s participation in the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) after ‘Brexit’. It will first review the way in which the ‘opt-in/opt-out’ arrangements still apply to Ireland, before considering how Ireland’s position might have evolved after Brexit. In this respect, it will feature some recent cases of the CJEU. Although Ireland considers the UK to be a safe third country for refugees, it is likely that their respective asylum policies will diverge even further, owing to their now very different positions with respect to EU law and especially the CEAS.
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Limitations of the Transnational ne bis in idem Principle in EU Law
No-one shall be tried or punished twice for the same offence. This principle is part of the fundamental law protection in the EU, but can be limited under certain conditions. In Case C-365/21, decided on 23 March 2023, the ECJ has confirmed the validity of an important limitation of the transnational ne bis in idem guarantee. Another case which arose in the context of the Diesel scandal involving German automobile producer Volkswagen and is still pending before the European Court of Justice gives the Court a new opportunity to set new standards regarding limitations of the ne bis in idem principle in cases involving different Member States and to strengthen this principle which is of great importance for the completion of a genuine area of freedom, security and justice.
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Constitutional? Perhaps. Democratic? Not so much
The adoption of the Law on Retirement without a majority in the National Assembly has caused a huge uproar in France. The use by the executive of an article or two of the Constitution, as well as the combination thereof, is deemed constitutional until a competent organ says otherwise. And the only one who could, the Constitutional Council, will probably not say otherwise. But even if something is constitutional, that does not make it democratic. A look into the justifications given by the head of State and the head of Government stirs reflection on the relationship between the constitutional and democratic character of the proceedings.
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The Quality of Sovereignty
It can generally be agreed that the purpose of sovereignty is to enable a government to protect the best interests of its citizens. To what extent did UK membership of the EU preclude this? In the context of the EU, the discussion on sovereignty tends to focus on quantity – the greater the scope of action of the EU and its institutions, the lower the sovereignty of the member states. From this perspective, sovereignty is a zero-sum affair – less means less. However, sovereignty can also be assessed from a qualitative perspective, with a focus on its quality, or character, rather than its scope.
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Political Advertising and Disinformation
Over a year ago, the European Commission presented its Proposal for a Regulation on the transparency and targeting of political advertising (COM(2021) 731 final). Recently, the Council presented its General Approach, followed by the position of the European Parliament (EP). While stakeholders are waiting for the trilogue negotiations to shape the final text of the legislation, critical voices are raising concerns. Concerns are that under the future regulation online platforms might have to de-amplify such independent content
Continue reading >>A New York Moment for the Oceans to join the Paris Moment for the Climate?
The recently concluded Agreement on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction has been described as the 'New York Moment' for the oceans, to join the 'Paris Moment' for the climate. The Paris Agreement was considered to be such a moment, in part, because it constituted a significant paradigm shift in international environmental law, institutionally as well as substantively. The current draft of the BBNJ arguably contains a paradigm shift of comparable significance for the law of the sea in at least three respects.
Continue reading >>Peaceful and Neutral Games
In a statement issued on March 17, 2023, the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) advocated to uphold the current exclusion of Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials from international competitions. In light of the upcoming Olympic Games in Paris 2024 this topic is currently of great concern to the international sports world. From a human rights perspective, I agree with the core of the DOSB position: the exclusion serves the aims of protecting the rights of Ukrainian athletes and of preventing sporting events from being instrumentalised for war propaganda. These are legitimate reasons for the unequal treatment of Russian athletes.
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An Interactive Relationship
In reflections on fifty years of membership, the employment of women is often identified as a tangible example of how membership changed Ireland. Concretely, in the years immediately following accession, the state was required to enact legislation on equal pay and equal treatment for women and men in employment. This narrative tends to place emphasis on EU law as a cause of law reform in Ireland. 50 years on, both Irish and EU equality law have expanded significantly.
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Constitutional Identity, Ireland and the EU
Costello v. Government of Ireland and others is one of the most significant recent Irish Supreme Court rulings concerning EU law. The case involved a member of parliament seeking to restrain the Irish government from ratifying the 2014 EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) on grounds of alleged unconstitutionality. Costello’s most long-lasting impact is likely to be its introduction of the concept of constitutional identity into Irish constitutional jurisprudence.
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Big Brother is Watching the Olympic Games – and Everything Else in Public Spaces
The French National Assembly is currently debating the law on the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Despite its name, the law has more to do with security than with sports. In particular, Article 7 of the law creates a legal basis for algorithmic video surveillance, that is, video surveillance that relies on artificial intelligence to treat the images and audio of video surveillance cameras in order to identify human beings, objects, or specific situations. In other words, video surveillance cameras in France’s public spaces would now able to identify you and detect if your behaviour is suspicious.
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Bemerkenswerte Haftbefehle aus Den Haag
Die Haftbefehle des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs in Den Haag vom Ende letzter Woche haben schnell die Runde gemacht und sind weltweit als Eilmeldung verbreitet worden. Auch in der deutschen Presselandschaft sind die Haftbefehle gegen den russischen Staatspräsidenten sowie seine Kinderrechtsbeauftragte bewertet worden. Einige bemerkenswerte Aspekte der Entscheidung, die bislang keine Aufmerksamkeit erfahren haben, sollen hier beleuchtet werden.
Continue reading >>The Janus Face of Fetal Citizenship: A Tool of Inclusion or a Threat to Abortion Rights?
Should citizenship status be conferred upon an unborn child? In a 2022 landmark decision, Pranav Srinivasan v. Union of India, the Madras High Court answered this question in the affirmative. Srinivasan had not been born yet when his parents, with his mother being in the third trimester of her pregnancy, gave up their Indian for Singaporean citizenship. Now an adult and ostensibly to avoid the mandatory conscription for Singaporean citizens, Srinivasan sought to avail himself of a statutory right to reclaim his Indian citizenship, pursuant to section 8(2) of the Citizenship Act 1955. While the Court's ruling in Srinivasan's favour should be applauded for its inclusionary ethos, it threatens to undermine India's progressive abortion jurisprudence. A provision of the 1956 Hindu Succession Act might provide a solution to this conflict.
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Post-Brexit Sovereignty
In thinking about sovereignty within the United Kingdom, it is helpful to separate out two ways in which sovereignty has historically been identified in both the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Sovereignty is, first, a power over others, most notably absolute and final authority over a territory. If this allows those holding it to achieve considerable things, it also generates apprehension as it allows them to do many things to others. Sovereignty is, secondly, a constitutive power.
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Integration and Disintegration
In our analysis below, we examine the convergent and divergent paths of Ireland and the UK on the theme of integration and disintegration in three stages. The first considers the constitutional context and framework within which each of the two countries chose to embark on the path of European integration by acceding to the EEC in the early 1970s. The second examines several key policy choices made by the two states along a continuum between integration and disintegration, as part of a more differentiated, post-Maastricht EU. The final stage examines the implications of Brexit for the UK and Ireland following Britain’s departure from the EU.
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50 Years On
In 1973 and on the third attempt, Ireland and the United Kingdom (UK) with Denmark acceded to the European Communities, while Norway opted not to join following a referendum. For Ireland and the UK, the half-century since has brought about remarkable social, economic, demographic, political, and legal changes in both states leading to the UK leaving the EU in 2020 and Ireland remaining a Member State. Given the shared anniversary and divergent responses to EU membership in the context of strong (if complex) ties between the two states and a shared common law tradition, a reflection on the 50th anniversary of their accession to what is now the European Union (EU) is timely.
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Nützliche Idioten
Was beschwert ihr euch, werden sie sagen. Ihr wart es doch, die damit angefangen haben.
Continue reading >>Useful Idiots
What are you complaining about, they will say. It was you who started it.
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Separating Substance from Procedure: How to Address the Israeli Constitutional Crisis
Many proposals to resolve the current Israeli constitutional crisis have been recently advanced. Yet, most of them are arguably unlikely to bring about a compromise. This is so not because their content cannot be accepted by the parties involved, but because they do not address the substantive concerns of the parties. Israel's constitutional crisis results from the fact that the parties to the conflict shape their proposals concerning the decision-making process in a way that is conducive to their short-term substantive interests. Any proposed solution must therefore separate substantive questions from procedural and institutional ones.
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The Begum Case: Why Ministerial Discretion Precludes Human Rights Issues
In recent years, cancellation of British citizenship has become a high-profile issue. This is not least because of the case of Shamima Begum, who left the UK as a 15-year-old British schoolgirl for Syria in 2015. Upon being found in a camp in Syria four years ago, the Home Secretary removed her British citizenship soon thereafter, leaving her de facto stateless. After protracted litigation surrounding a number of preliminary issues, three weeks ago, Begum lost her appeal against the decision in front of the Special Immigration Appeals Commission’s (SIAC). The Commission’s refusal to allow her appeal is remarkable for the nearly unlimited degree of discretion it appears to grant the Home Secretary in cancellation cases, even where human rights are at stake.
Continue reading >>Too Much for Others, too Little for Us
The draft of the European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) published last September appears to constitute, in part, an attempt to respond to the systematic erosion of media freedom in Hungary since 2010. The European Commission seems to be aware of how unsuccessful it has been in addressing the problem. Thus, even though the rule of law proceedings against Hungary found a serious violation of media freedom, the conditionality procedure and the Charter of Fundamental Rights eligibility criteria inquiry failed to address the issue. Against this backdrop, this blogpost will analyse the draft EMFA’s capacity to respond to the unique challenges posed by the Hungarian media freedom landscape.
Continue reading >>The Proposed Constitutional Putsch in Israel
February and March 2023 have seen hundreds of thousands of demonstrators protesting against new proposed constitutional amendments designed to transform the constitutional foundations of the State of Israel. This is an exceptional phenomenon. Israel has seen mass demonstrations in the past, but it has never seen mass demonstrations on what may seem like issues which should concern, at best, lawyers or law professors. But looked at more attentively, this reaction is not surprising: beneath the legalistic debate on the constitutional amendments lurk deeper issues: should Israel be more western or more Jewish? What is the status of Jewishness in the Jewish State? What should the status of Palestinians in a Jewish State be? Is Israel primarily a western state, or is it a nationalist theocracy? A lot is, therefore, at stake for every Israeli citizen!
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Inter* Personen im menschenrechtlichen Warteraum
Bei Fällen aus dem LGBTIQ*-Themenkreis vor dem Europäischen Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR) lässt sich ein gewisses Muster erkennen: In dem jeweils ersten Beschwerdefall (sei es das Adoptionsrecht für homosexuelle Personen, sei es die Frage der Anerkennung der Geschlechtsidentität von trans* Personen), erkennt der EGMR zunächst keine Verletzung eines Konventionsrechts an. Häufig erklärt er aber auch, dass diese Einschätzung sich ändern kann. So könnte es auch bei der Frage des Personenstatus von inter* Personen kommen.
Continue reading >>Drive to Survive
On 9 March 2022, the Council of the EU included Nikita Mazepin, the Russian Formula 1 driver competing in the 2021 season, on the list of sanctioned people. Almost one year later, on 1 March 2023, this measure was suspended by the Order of the President of the General Court as an interim measure in the appellation proceedings against the Council decision initiated by Mazepin. In this blog post, I argue that the President of the General Court made a mistake in the factual assessment of the position of Nikita and took a too lenient approach to his request.
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The New Populism is Responsible for the Massacres in the Mediterranean
The tragedy of the 73 people left to drown, without help, a few meters away from the beach near Cutro and the Italian government's pathetic attempts at justification for their inaction forcefully raise again the ‘migrants question’.
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Der einsamkeitsbedingte Alterssuizid im Lichte des Grundgesetzes
Der Beitrag diskutiert das Urteil des BVerfG zum ehemaligen § 217 StGB im Hinblick auf die Frage, welche Positionierung zur Erforderlichkeit von Autonomieschutz beim einsamkeitsbedingten Alterssuizid ihm zu entnehmen ist. Dazu wird insbesondere geprüft, welche Abwägungen dem Urteilstext zufolge im Spiel sind. Zunächst wird herausgearbeitet, dass das Gericht eine wesentliche Veränderung des im Diskurs zuvor dominanten Abwägungsnarrativs vorgenommen hat. Anschließend wird das dem Urteil zu entnehmende Konzept des Autonomieschutzes untersucht und geprüft, ob die Abwägung überzeugend begründet wurde.
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The Imaged
A Basic-Law Monument and Some Buckets of Ink-Black Paint
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Das Abgebildete
Ein Grundgesetz-Monument und ein paar Kübel tintenschwarze Farbe
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What is the Point of the UK’s Illegal Migration Bill?
The introduction of the Illegal Migration Bill to the UK Parliament appears to be the latest outburst of the Conservative government’s increasing hysteria with respect to the small boat crossings of the Channel in which Brexit-released fantasies of post-imperial sovereign power are acted out in the form of half-baked legislative proposals. The politically inconvenient fact that most of the 15% of asylum seekers who reach UK territory in this way are found to have legitimate asylum or protection claims seems to be a particular source of rage with a leaked Conservative Party email to party members under Suella Braverman’s name blaming “an activist blob of leftwing lawyers, civil servants and the Labour Party” for boat crossings, which at least suggests she knows her audience. This is “Build the Wall” for an island nation and, like Trump’s project, its primary value is as a fantasy object than a practical project.
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Shamima Begum’s Banishment is a Threat to Us All
Two weeks ago, the British Special Immigration Appeals Commission (SIAC) rejected Shamima Begum’s appeal against the Home Secretary’s decision to deprive her of citizenship, dealing the latest blow in her on-going battle to regain her status. SIAC’s choice to uphold the Home Secretary’s deprivation decision is not just blatantly unjust, unfairly punishing a victim of child trafficking, but also indicates a dangerous decline in the UK’s commitment to the rule of law.
Continue reading >>Warming Up
In January 2023, Chile and Colombia submitted their joint request for an advisory opinion on the climate emergency and human rights, thereby paving the way for the first groundbreaking decision on the issue of climate change by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) and the first advisory opinion in this regard by a regional human rights monitoring body. The Court will have the unique opportunity to cover a broad variety of areas and questions that align under the umbrella term of climate change and human rights and therefore to deal with the issue in an integral manner.
Continue reading >>The Constitution under the Rubble
On 6 February 2023, the century-old Republic of Turkey witnessed the most horrific environmental catastrophe in its history. Despite the evident responsibility of the central government and local administrations in the exacerbation of the social disaster, a particular state institution and an affluent Sufi cult apparently sought to capitalise on the destitution of young earthquake victims. Such was the context of the two criminal complaints filed by the lawyer-led NGO “Children and Women First Association” (Önce Çocuklar ve Kadınlar Derneği). Theocratic practices in a constitutionally secular country like Turkey do not merely erode the rule of law, but also violate the rights of children as defined under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
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A New Volume and an Old Error
It looked as if this useful series of red books had been dropped off or discontinued. However, in 2022, the Court published a voluminous book on the “General Right of Personality” (Article 2(1) Basic Law). The collection is interesting because it gives an impression of the many facets that the Court has found over time in Art. 2(1) Basic Law. But beyond that, the collection is also interesting as correction of an initial error of the Court, which, however, was never recognized as an error by the Court itself.
Continue reading >>The Italian “No Jab, No Job” Law Passes Constitutional Muster
The Italian legal system has known some unprecedented measures during the pandemic, including the lockdown regime, “green pass” system etc. Such measures have been probed by ordinary and administrative judges and by the Italian Constitutional Court (ICC). Notwithstanding some limited corrections, these measures stood up to scrutiny overall. This is also true for COVID-19 vaccine mandates. Now, with three judgments, the ICC dismissed all the challenges against it.
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Freeing Political Expression
The South Korean parliament is in the midst of an intensive debate on electoral reform. Yet, a crucial element of necessary electoral law reform is missing in these debate: Last year, the Constitutional Court declared a controversial paragraph from the Electoral Act as unconstitutional and unjustly restricting freedom of expression. Failing to revise the targeted paragraph corresponding to the Constitutional Court’s decision in the upcoming legislature periods - by the latest of July 31, 2023 - would inevitably lead to a legal vacuum. In this blog post, I shed some light on the Constitutional Court’s 2022 decision and explain why the ruling could have a major impact on how election campaigns are conducted in South Korea.
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Feminist Foreign Trade Policy is a Demand of the EU Treaties
there is a strong basis for feminist trade policy in EU primary law. Arguably, any external action of the EU ought to be in compliance with basic considerations of feminist foreign policy. The key question is not if EU external action should comply with feminist foreign policy, but rather, how.
Continue reading >>Mexican Democracy (and the Supreme Court) at a Crossroads
Mexican democracy has come a long way since the creation of the electoral watchdog three decades ago. The Instituto Nacional Electoral (INE) had a crucial role in securing the transition to democracy after the Partido de la Revolución Institucional (PRI) 70-year hegemonic rule. As such, it has since become a pillar of the country’s democracy. Yet, on February 22nd, the Mexican Federal Congress passed a set of amendments to electoral law overhauling the electoral agency. Together with a set of amendments passed last December, these changes to electoral law undermine the agency’s independence by, among other things, slashing the size of the agency's civil service by 85%. This puts into serious question the capacity of the agency to guarantee the organization of free and fair elections in the general election next year.
Continue reading >>A New Chapter in the European Rule of Law Saga?
‘[B]y adopting the legislation cited in the first paragraph, Hungary has infringed Article 2 TEU‘. At first glance, this plea seems almost unspectacular. Yet, when one takes a closer look, this very plea demonstrates the European Commission’s attempt to write nothing less than a new chapter in the saga of the European rule of law crisis. The Commission’s action concerns the controversial Hungarian law of the Fidesz government, which restricts information about transsexuality and homosexuality. This blog post aims to provide an overview over the recent development and the academic debate regarding the justiciability of Art. 2 TEU in this context. I argue that although the mobilisation of Art. 2 TEU as a stand-alone provision might open new doors to tackle the democratic backsliding in some Member States, this approach has to be handled with great care.
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In der Existenz bedroht
"In Ungarn geht es um das Überleben der Demokratie. In Israel geht es um das Überleben Israels."
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An Existential Threat
"In Hungary, it is about the survival of democracy. In Israel, it is about the survival of Israel."
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Constitutionalising Insularity
A few days ago, the Islands Commission General Assembly of the Conference on Peripheral Maritime Regions, a French-based think tank lobbying the EU, gathered to discuss “A Pact for EU Islands” to be advocated in the upcoming Spanish Presidency of the Council of the EU, starting in the second half of 2023. So far, with the exception of a resolution passed by the European Parliament on 7 June 2022 and heralded by a 2021 study, in the past five years, insularity has been largely ignored in the European Union's political discourse.
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Barring Legal Gender Reassignment in Bulgaria
The Bulgarian Supreme Court of Cassation (SCC) has recently rejected the possibility for legal gender reassignment of transgender people. The SCC followed the approach of the Constitutional Court in framing its reasoning alongside the lines of the traditional social values. In doing so, the interpretative decision arguably undermined its own goal of unifying the future case-law by avoiding the discussion on the right to equal treatment of transgender persons and their protection from discrimination on the ground of their sexuality.
Continue reading >>On the Road to Censorship
Freedom of expression is in peril in India. To be fair, the Indian Supreme Court has never been a devout protector of freedom of expression. When presented with the option, it has often leaned towards permitting limitations, so long as the restrictions are properly framed under the language of Article 19(2) of the constitution. Yet, faced with the current illiberal onslaught, there is a possibility that even the few gains that have been made in this area of the court’s jurisprudence will be lost. Situated in this context, this article discusses the recent ban issued by the Indian government on a BBC documentary on India’s prime minister, the jurisprudence of the Indian supreme court on the interception of online material, and the legal measures introduced to regulate freedom of expression on the internet.
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Georgia’s Bill on Foreign Agents and the Limits of the EU’s Soft Power
On February 20, 2023, the Parliament of Georgia registered the bill "On the transparency of foreign influence" that introduces the category of an "agent of foreign influence" – any private legal entity which gets more than 20% of its entire budget from a "foreign force". These facially innocent "monitoring" functions harbour a potentially totalitarian instrument of control. In Georgia, which underwent Stalinist purges of the 1930s, where family members (anonymously) denounced each other to the NKVD (secret police) and innocent people were rounded and summarily executed on charges of being a "foreign agent", this rings a much louder alarm bell, than elsewhere.
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“Like Handing My Whole Life Over”
On 16 February 2023, the German Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG) ruled that the practice of regularly analysing data carriers, including mobile phones, by the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF) when registering asylum applicants is illegal (BVerwG 1 C 19.21). The judgement arrives after the Gesellschaft für Freiheitsrechte’s (GFF) efforts to reveal this practice’s details and take legal action against its use in the asylum procedure. In this post, we briefly overview this practice and analyse this judgement and its implications. We argue that although this judgement represents an important victory for asylum seekers’ and refugees’ data protection and privacy, some controversial aspects of this practice still require clarification.
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Elections Held in Response to Demand
After the disastrous earthquakes of 6 February, the presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 18 June were treated like the elephant in the room. Although being evidently unconstitutional, given the government’s influence, the Supreme Board of Election could enforce a postponement of the elections. However, relatively free elections are what remain of Turkish democracy and what are keeping it alive.
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Towards European Rights of Nature
On 24 February, Marie-Christine Fuchs on this blog discussed the 2022 Spanish Mar Menor Act – the first rights of nature case in Europe – in light of Latin American precedents and the criticism the Act is facing from right-wing populists in Spain. Whether the Act remains the first law in Europe granting rights to a non-human natural entity will now be decided by the Spanish Constitutional Court. In her analysis of the socio-legal foundations of the Mar Menor Act, Fuchs argues that it had a “more fragile argumentative basis” than precedents in Latin America. In contrast, this article argues that the Spanish legislator succeeded in placing the Mar Menor Act on its own argumentative footing, thus opening the door for a genuinely Western liberal conception and implementation of rights of nature in Europe.
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Action Recommended
The DSA will have a say in what measures social media platforms will have to implement with regard to the recommendation engines they deploy to curate people’s feeds and timelines. It is a departure from the previous narrow view of content moderation, and pays closer attention to risks stemming from the amplification of harmful content and the underlying design choices. But it is too early to celebrate.
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That’s Just How It’s Built
Raindrops on the Window Pane of the European House
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So ist das halt gebaut
Regentropfen auf der Fensterscheibe des Europäischen Hauses
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Rights of Nature Reach Europe
On September 30, 2022, the Spanish Senate approved the "Mar Menor Act" (Law 19/2022) which granted legal personality to the Mar Menor lagoon and its basin. Being the first legal text in Europe to recognize a natural entity as a subject of rights, it is one more piece in the mosaic of a global movement towards ecological justice, which tries to find strong legal answers in times of global ecological crisis. In fact, the Spanish landmark decision follows the precedents of countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, New Zealand, India and the United States. In this context, it is worth asking whether the legal and socio-cultural bases of the concept of the rights of nature, as developed in the aforementioned cases, especially in those stemming from Latin America, are also sustainable in Europe and for the Mar Menor case.
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A Unique Identification Number for Every European Citizen
On 3 June 2021, the European Commission issued a proposal for a European Digital Identity Regulation, which seems to not have raised much discussion among legal scholars, even though digital identity raises several fundamental rights implications. The introduction of a unique and persistent identifier may be understandable from a practical point of view, but cannot be accepted due to its risks and the fact that it potentially infringes the German prohibition on general unique identifiers.
Continue reading >>On the Side of International Law
This Wednesday, the United Nations General Assembly resumed its Emergency Special Session on Ukraine, amidst a turbulent week that witnessed US President Biden’s surprise trip to Kyiv, Russian withdrawal from the New START Treaty, and Chinese top diplomat Wang Yi’s visit to Moscow, amongst other things. On Thursday, the Assembly adopted resolution ES-11/6 (draft here) with 141 votes in favor, seven against, 32 abstentions and 13 countries not voting. If the Russian aggression last year was a watershed moment for the United Nations, then the organ to watch these days is the General Assembly, and not the Security Council.
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What can(’t) international criminal justice deliver for Ukraine?
One year ago, Russia began its full-scale invasion of Ukraine, committing an act of aggression in violation of the UN Charter. Many more incidents of international crimes followed, adding to an already large number of unaddressed crimes going back to 2014. While investigations are underway, the failures to pursue accountability for international crimes committed by Russia in the past still need to be addressed in this context.
Continue reading >>ChatGPT in Colombian Courts
Colombian judges have transcribed ChatGPT’s outputs to motivate their rulings without examining whether the content produced by the chatbot was accurate. Ensuring digital literacy of the judiciary is critical in times of generative artificial intelligence.
Continue reading >>Departing from Hostile Refugee Landscapes
In December 2022, the Swedish Migration Agency estimated that the Taliban’s conquest of Afghanistan has made the lives of Afghan women and girls so difficult that it counts as persecution based on gender. Against this background, the Migration Agency announced that all women and girls from Afghanistan are eligible to refugee status and a three-year residence permit in Sweden. These policies represent a major departure from the wide range of restrictive amendments that Denmark and Sweden, over the past decades, have introduced to their asylum laws with the aim of becoming less attractive target countries for asylum seekers.
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New Wine in Old Bottles
On February 14, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights released its judgment on the Raphael Halet case. In a context of both increasing attacks against financial transparency, and failure of states to properly implement the EU directive on the protection of whistleblowers, the judgment by the Grand Chamber was a much awaited one. This case gave the Strasbourg Court an opportunity to reaffirm the importance of whistleblower protection as a human right, and amend the threshold for protection. Yet, the Strasbourg Court still falls short from providing whistleblowers a safe way of expressing concerns publicly.
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Democratic Backsliding and the Supreme Court in Mexico
Democratic backsliding begins at the ballot box, and the turning point in Mexico was the election of 2018, which the charismatic leader Andrés Manuel López Obrador and his party won by a landslide. López Obrador’s government has pushed through a comprehensive electoral reform which will negatively affect the right to vote and the legitimacy of the general election of 2024. The Supreme Court will have to decide whether the reform stands or not.
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Weltumspannende Vernichtungsfantasien
In seinem jüngst veröffentlichten Gutachten zum documenta fifteen-Skandal schreibt Christoph Möllers, dass er Kunstformen, „die sich antisemitischer oder rassistischer Stereotype bedienen“, nebeneinander behandeln könne, „weil die Unterschiede zwischen Rassismus und Antisemitismus jedenfalls nicht auf den Umstand ihrer verfassungsrechtlichen Missbilligung hinüberwirken, die für beide gilt und für beide an gleicher Stelle verankert ist“. Das mag der Mehrheitsmeinung unter Verfassungsrechtler:innen entsprechen. Aus der Perspektive der Antisemitismusforschung verdeckt eine solche same standards-These jedoch gerade das, was den modernen Antisemitismus ausmacht. Deshalb sollten wir erwägen, bei seiner rechtlichen Bekämpfung dogmatisch neue Wege zu gehen.
Continue reading >>Israel’s New Citizenship Deprivation-Deportation Pipeline
Buried in the news on the Israeli Knesset’s judicial reform plans are two bills that substantially increase the government’s power to deprive citizenship and subsequently deport Palestinian citizens convicted of terrorism offences and their family members. One already passed into law last Wednesday, while the one targeting their family members is still making its way through committees. In this blog post we survey and evaluate the rationales used to justify these newly assumed powers and set out why their current design is so insidious.
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Ignorance and Evil
On 2 February 2023, the Hungarian Constitutional Court published its long-awaited decision on legal gender recognition. For the first time, the Constitutional Court reviewed the provisions introduced into the Act on Registry Procedure in late May 2020 requiring the registration of the sex at birth (instead of sex) and banning any modification to that registry entry. With its decision, the Constitutional Court chose to remain concordant with the perceived political expectations, blatantly served the interest of the government majority, and echoed their fixation of biologically determined sex.
Continue reading >>Passports and Weapons
Can states be allowed to solve problems with certain citizens by denaturalisation?
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Pässe und Waffen
Kann es Staaten erlaubt sein, Probleme mit bestimmten Staatsangehörigen durch Ausbürgerung zu lösen?
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Incremental but Significant
On 6 February 2023, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal ruled in favor of two transgender applicants seeking to change the gender marker on their identification cards. The Court held that the Hong Kong government’s policy unconstitutionally infringed upon their right to privacy. This is doctrinally and strategically consistent with the Court’s LGBTQ jurisprudence, which proceeds incrementally and is highly attuned to the (ever-shrinking) political space in which Hong Kong courts operate.
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Shutting Down the Internet to Shut Down Criticism
In the aftermath of the devastating earthquakes which hit southwestern Turkey, internet connectivity had enabled civil society to provide additional on- and off-site assistance. However, the use of social media is not seen as innocent by Turkish authorities. Immediately after the earthquakes, authorities started to use legal instruments to silence the use of social media platforms even at the expense of utilizing its benefits during catastrophic times.
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Small Country, Big Hurdles
Liechtenstein is far away from a comprehensive decriminalisation of abortion. The termination of pregnancy is still regulated by the Criminal Code and the person who performs the abortion will be prosecuted. Only the pregnant person acts legally when terminating an unplanned or unwanted pregnancy. But it took until 2015 for pregnant persons to be granted a (limited) right to self-determination, and there is still a lack of sufficient legal, medical and social support. In a difficult and psychologically stressful situation, pregnant persons must seek treatment abroad – not because they want to, but because they have to.
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Watchdog Watching Too Closely
In December 2017, readers of the largest and maybe also the most esteemed Finnish newspaper, Helsingin Sanomat, were surprised to find an article which, among others, showed excerpts of classified, red-labelled documents. Very little was publicly known about the workings of that special center, part of the military intelligence, situated in a faraway resort. More than five years later, on January 27th, 2023, the Helsinki District Court found both of the journalists guilty of criminal disclosure charges. Put simply, the court’s decision is that media may report abuses of power. However, an interest to attract readers only is not enough to justify the disclosure.
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A Dormant Struggle Reaches Critical Mass
Developments in Europe and beyond mark a changing landscape of (constitutional) space law – an unsustainable upsurge in the numbers of satellites and resulting light and debris pollution, the entry into the market of new actors with conflicting interests, and the fragmentation of domestic systems’ approach to space law mean that the current quasi-constitutional system is under the immense risk of being entirely disregarded. For the sake of the future, there are good reasons to keep a constitutional basis to space endeavours. We have to discuss ways of doing so now. Europe appears willing, and I would argue should, lead the way.
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Ignoring Human Life in Belgium
Two kilometers from Manneken-Pis in beautiful Brussels is the seat of the Belgian Constitutional Court, which has recently condoned the torture of an innocent citizen putting the very right to life on the line in a blunt attack against the overwhelming political consensus, as well as popular and academic support to save Olivier Vandecasteele’s life. Today, all eyes are on the court, as it will get a chance to correct the injustice of its own making.
Continue reading >>Allister and Peeples
The ruling in Allister and Peeples of 8 February 2023 serves as a potent reminder that the UK has yet to fully say goodbye to Brexit. The matter being scrutinised was the Northern Ireland Protocol and questions surrounding its constitutionality within the famously uncodified UK constitution. Critically, the UK Supreme Court appears to have poured cold water on the idea that certain Acts of the UK Parliament have a constitutional character (the constitutional statutes doctrine). It is my suggestion, however, that the doctrine has not entirely been consigned to history.
Continue reading >>The Patriots’ Repossession
If we are to rebuild and strengthen Brazilian democracy, the ‘de-Bolsonarization’ of Brasília’s bureaucratic establishment and of security forces throughout the country is an essential step. This might seem like a distant utopia, yet it remains very much needed. After all, dismantling the ‘patriotic’ camps does not mean dismantling their coordination, their shared beliefs and values – a worldview in which they are not only good citizens doing good deeds, but owners with the right to recoup their rightfully owned property through force, omnipotents in their destruction.
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A New Battlefront for Scottish Nationalists in the United Kingdom
By blocking the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill, the UK Government is showing that it is now ready to police the boundaries of devolved competence more robustly, especially when it believes legislation is being used deliberately to veer into reserved matters. It is perhaps also now asserting a more homogeneous approach to fundamental human rights values, an assertion which is the hallmark of other federal systems. The current debate also exposes that the radical devolution of so many powers to sub-state institutions over the past two decades without serious thought being given for the potential impact of this process upon the maintenance of coherent state policy was perhaps ill-advised and requires correction.
Continue reading >>The Economic Fallout from Curtailing Judicial Independence
The attempt to emasculate Israel's Supreme Court has drawn widespread criticism and protest, both at home and abroad. An intriguing aspect of the situation has been the opposition expressed by business interests and economic experts, who are often and perhaps wrongly believed to attach an overwhelmingly high value to efficiency, commonly achieved in an institutional environment characterized by the absence of competing centers of political power. Perhaps the most visible manifestation of the concerns and fears emanating from this source has been the open letter to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu signed by fifty-six prominent international economists, including eleven Nobel laureates, stating that judicial reform along the lines contemplated would set Israel on a course akin to that of Hungary and Poland.
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The platform-media relationship in the European Media Freedom Act
The European Media Freedom Act proposal takes aim at very large online platforms’ gatekeeping power over access to media content and aims to reshape the relationship between media and platforms. By providing media organisations a special position on platforms, however, the EMFA risks changing the media’s role and relationships with other actors in ways that run counter to its overall objective to secure media freedom.
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The Opining State
Artistic freedom, anti-Semitism, and intellectual dispute
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Der meinende Staat
Kunstfreiheit, Antisemitismus und die geistige Auseinandersetzung
Continue reading >>Statement by Canadian Law Professors and Jurists on the Proposed Legal Reforms in Israel
The undersigned are Canadian law professors and jurists. We write [...]
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Für eine Zeitenwende im Abtreibungsrecht
Am Ende des Symposiums wird sichtbar: Abtreibungen zu kriminalisieren bildet im Vergleich zu den ausgewählten Ländern nicht die Regel (I.). Das bedeutet allerdings nicht, dass eine Entkriminalisierung jegliche faktischen Zugangshürden aus dem Weg räumt. Der Blick ins Ausland lohnt sich deshalb auch unabhängig von der Frage der Entkriminalisierung, um potentielle Fallstricke für die Versorgungslage zu analysieren (II.). Die Entkriminalisierung des Schwangerschaftsabbruchs bereitet jedoch, so legt der Rechtsvergleich nahe, den Weg, um strukturelle Hindernisse abbauen zu können. Eine bedeutende Rolle können dabei aktivistische Bewegungen spielen (III.).
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A Turning Point in Abortion Law
This blog post concludes the symposium “Comparative Legal Perspectives on Abortion”. The symposium traced the regulation of abortion and accompanying activist movements in Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Iceland, Northern Macedonia, Tunisia, South Africa, India, and South Korea. Now we want to turn our gaze from the outside back to the inside: What is to be gained for the German debate on abortion law?
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Solidarity on Solidarity Levies and a Choice of Energy Mix
The Council of the European Union has adopted a series of increasingly controversial measures to deal with the energy crisis. These measures - based on the little used Art 122(1) TFEU- are in part linked to the Commission’s REPower EU plan, which aims to end Europe’s reliance on energy imports from Russia and accelerate Europe’s clean energy transition away from fossil fuels towards renewable energy. With each successive measure the powers of the Commission have expanded to intervene on the supply as well as the demand side of Europe’s electricity and gas markets.
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From Population Control to Reproductive Justice
On 11 April 2019, South Korea’s Constitutional Court ruled that the ban on abortion was unconstitutional. As a result, South Korea’s legislature had to revise its 66-year-old anti-abortion law by 31 December 2020. This historic decision was made possible in response to the advocacy of a number of feminist groups, doctors’ organizations, disability rights groups, youth activists, and religious groups in South Korea. Although the overall goal of reproductive justice movements was to change the law that threatened women’s health and lives through the criminalization of abortion, one of the main steps of the movements toward that goal was to challenge the previous framework of pro-choice versus pro-life.
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Still a right?
Although abortion in Tunisia has been legal for 50 years and offered for free in government facilities, the revolution of 2011 and the following democratization process have paradoxically put into question the access to this service. The Islamists’ victory and the conservative turn of local society in the 2000s have led to a step backwards in the domain of women’s rights including sexual and reproductive rights. Together with Turkey, Tunisia is the only Islamic-majority country that authorizes abortion for social reasons.
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“Marg bar Khamenei”
The Oversight Board has evaluated the use of a protest slogan used by Iranian dissidents, calling for "marg bar Khamenei", which literally translates as "death to Khamenei", yet is often used to mean "down with Khamenei". Meta removed it for violating its community standards against violence and incitement. At EU level, Art. 14(4) DSA provides for an unprecedented obligation, which requires social media platforms to act in a proportionate manner in applying and enforcing their terms and conditions, with due regard to the rights and legitimate interests of all parties involved. Examining the Oversight Board's reasoning, we explore how Art. 14(4) DSA would be operationalized in this case.
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Verfassungsschutz
Rechtswissenschaftliche Graswurzelaufklärung in Israel
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Protecting the Constitution
Legal academic grass-roots enlightenment in Israel
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Separatisten vor dem EuGH
Mit dem Urteil vom 31.01.2023 hat der EuGH der bisherigen Geschichte zur Auslieferung der führenden Politiker:innen der katalanischen Autonomiebewegung nach Spanien ein weiteres Kapitel hinzugefügt. Gleichzeitig entwickelt der Gerichtshof seine Rechtsprechung zu den Ausnahmen des gegenseitigen Vertrauens bei Gefahren für ein faires Verfahren fort, die dem Betroffenen nach der Vollstreckung eines Europäischen Haftbefehls im Ausstellungsstaat drohen – mit noch offenen Folgen für den Auslieferung der katalanischen Politiker:innen.
Continue reading >>Abortion in Canada: Always Legal, Not Always Accessible
In Canada, abortion is not a criminal offence. There are no legal restrictions on abortion, including no restrictions with respect to gestational age or on the reasons for which a pregnant person may choose to have an abortion. As lawful medical procedures, abortions fall under provincial jurisdiction over health and there is some regulatory variability between provinces. Information about abortion access is similarly affected by provincial jurisdiction over education. Prior to decriminalization, advocacy on abortion access was national in scope, but since 1988, most activism has been focused on access and funding and has been provincial or even local.
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Pressure to Party?
Much has changed – and been written – since the ‘Alternative für Deutschland’ (AfD) was founded ten years ago by some rather neoliberal economists and former conservative party members. Today, hardly anyone talks about its early Eurosceptic profile, as it was soon replaced by nativist, authoritarian positions, making the party a typical member of the (populist) radical right party family. This shift to the far right was accompanied by a massive change in the party’s executive committee and membership base in 2015. Today, none of the first party spokespersons is a member of the party anymore.
Continue reading >>The Chilean Constituent Process: Take 2
After months of difficult negotiations, political parties in Chile agreed on the conditions for a new constituent process. This second attempt at drafting a new constitution for Chile looks radically different than the first process. While in the first process an elected Convention had the task to draft the new constitutional text, the draft that results from this second process will be produced by the interaction of three different organs: Council, Commission and Committee. Members of two of them, Commission and Committee, are not elected and have a rather “technical” character. Has legal expertise thus replaced political will in the second process?
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A Global Milestone
In 2019, Iceland passed a new law on the termination of pregnancy. Passed with a solid majority and the support of a cross-political coalition, the new law provides pregnant people with the right to decide on a termination, without having to get prior permission from medical personnel, as had previously been the case. The law was a huge step forward to ensure the protection of sexual and reproductive rights in Iceland, but there still remains room for improvement, for example with regard to the rights of trans people and the access of uninsured people to the service. The success of the legislation was also remarkable for the cross-political support it enjoyed, largely based on women’s solidarity as 18 of 22 women in parliament, from nearly all parties, supported the law.
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Why Declaring the Iranian Revolutionary Guards a Terrorist Group is a Trickier Business Than One May Think
The EU did not follow the European Parliament’s call to designate Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) as a terrorist group on the EU’s recent sanctions list. The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Josep Borrell, justified this decision with the lack of a court decision finding that the IRGC is indeed a terrorist group. Is an EU court decision a pre-condition for sanctioning terrorist groups? Not necessarily. Nevertheless, Borrell does have a point.
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Qatargate: A Missed Opportunity to Reform the Union
When the news broke about the arrest of EU Parliament’s Vice-President Eva Kaili in flagrant offence for corruption and money laundering, many observers instantly qualified Qatargate as the largest and the most damaging scandal affecting the European integration process since its inception. Since then, this prediction proves truer day by day, revelation after revelation. Yet, despite unprecedented media coverage and a shocked public, this scandal has not yet generated within the EU and national political class a good enough response to mitigate its damaging effects. EU leaders can hardly afford to miss this unique opportunity to prepare a convincing answer to the question many citizens will soon be asking: Why vote in the next EU Parliament’s election in 2024?
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Anti-Terror Legislation and Property Rights in Egypt
In January 2023, the Egyptian cabinet introduced a new bill for parliamentary discussion proposing the establishment of a new body to manage seized funds and assets confiscated by the state, including the seized assets of individuals and organizations legally designated as terrorists. In the midst of a severe economic crisis, the bill allows the transfer of confiscated funds and assets from the public treasury to a new entity that would have the mandate to take any form of disposition regarding these assets. The Egyptian sheds the light on the problematic “preventive” nature of counter-terrorism regulations, which vanishes criminal law safeguards and rule of law standards.
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A Decade of Implementation
Uruguay gained international praise in 2012 when it passed one of the most liberal abortion laws on the continent. While the law undoubtedly represents a step in the right direction, ten years have passed, and the law and its implementation could not live up to the expectations. The Uruguayan abortion law over-medicalizes, paternalizes, and imposes a series of very burdensome requirements on people wishing to access abortion services, in violation of human rights law.
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The rise of Article 122 TFEU
The last decade, and especially the past year, saw a marked increase in the EU’s reliance on Article 122 TFEU. This legal basis was used to adopt a series of measures aimed to address the health and energy crises following the COVID pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. At least two of those measures are now subject to direct challenges before the General Court and the Court of Justice. From a constitutional perspective, however, it is unfortunate that these two cases will probably not invite the Courts to address the more fundamental constitutional questions raised by the Council’s recent recourse to Article 122 TFEU.
Continue reading >>Israel: Cry, the Beloved Country
Israel, like many other democracies today, is a deeply polarized society. The operating principle of public discourse is typically: “Art thou for us or for our adversaries” (Joshua 5:13). It is thus telling that, in the recent eruption in response to Netanyahu’s new government plan to reform the judicial system, one sees groups whom one would have never expected on the anti-government side of the current protests.
Continue reading >>The Long Road to Reproductive Justice
In North Macedonia, abortion law changes when the government does. The practices of the past years vividly demonstrate that abortion is not only a private matter but also a political issue. Depending on whether right or left-wing parties are in power, the law on abortion fluctuates between difficult-to-access and more liberal procedures.
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Adapt or Die?
The year 2022 will be remembered as one of ‘terrible violence and seismic change in Europe’, in the words of the High Level Reflection Group established by the Council of Europe to consider the organisation’s future. The Council of Europe has issued a public call for ideas, inviting input from international organisations, national human rights institutions, civil society organisations, academics, human rights defenders and others. The deadline for submissions is imminent – 20 February – and the need for radical thinking has never been greater.
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Battling the hydra in EU anti-discrimination law
Can a company refuse to conclude or renew a contract with a self-employed person because he is gay? And may contractual freedom prevail over the prohibition of discrimination in such a situation? A short answer stemming from the recent ECJ judgment in J.K. v. TP would be a resounding no. Yet, a further analysis is in order because the judgment also brings a significant shift in the ECJ’s anti-discrimination case law.
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The Force of Social Mobilization
On December 30th, 2020, the Argentinean Congress legalized abortion up to the 14th week. Its legalization in Argentina took place after the rising of the so-called green tide in 2018, which transformed the longstanding movement for abortion rights in the country into a mass phenomenon, and the abortion issue, which used to be a taboo, into a main topic of public discussion. The new law has been challenged through judicial actions without success so far, and it has changed the conditions for the implementation of lawful abortions throughout the country.
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The Indian Supreme Court Collegium Picking its Battle
In an unprecedented move, the collegium of the Supreme Court of India on the 17th and 18th of January, 2023, passed resolutions calling out the executive’s delay in the judicial appointments of five advocates by publicly countering the government’s objections against their appointment. In this piece, I discuss how the Supreme Court collegium has confronted the discriminatory treatment of persons who openly identify as a part of the LGBTQIA+ community in the process of judicial appointments by standing up to the executive’s bullying. The piece also looks into how the collegium has confronted the union government’s attempt to suppress dissent among advocates and why these resolutions are highly consequential.
Continue reading >>No New Rights in Fedotova
In Fedotova and others v Russia issued on 17 January 2023, the ECtHR held that Russia had breached its positive obligation to secure the applicants’ right to respect for their private and family life under Article 8 of the Convention by failing to provide any form of legal recognition and protection for same sex couples. The ground-breaking aspect of the judgment is the clear rejection by the Court of the justifications advanced by the Contracting State.
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A Promising Future?
The Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act 92 of 1996 (Choice Act) provides the legislative framework that regulates access to abortion in South Africa. It is noted for its liberal stance on abortion and for this reason South Africa ‘serves as a global role model of reform in the area of abortion laws’. Despite its celebrated reproductive rights affirming approach, there are several on-ground issues that undermine the aims of the Act and the reproductive rights and health of those seeking abortion care. In this blog, I position the Choice Act within its historical and contemporary context which provides the necessary backdrop to demonstrate why the Act offers a ground-breaking approach to legislative regulation of abortion care. Thereafter, I explore some of the barriers to access and consider some key state efforts to overcome these issues, thus demonstrating a commitment to ensuring access to abortion care as part of the continuum of sexual and reproductive health care.
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Constitutional but Criminal
In the last two years, India has witnessed significant changes in the legal regulation of abortion. In 2021, Parliament comprehensively amended the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 (“MTP” Act) to ensure “access of women to safe and legal abortion without compromising on the safety and quality of care,” along with securing “dignity, autonomy, confidentiality and justice for women who need to terminate pregnancy.” Additionally, in September 2022, the Supreme Court of India delivered a path-breaking judgment on abortion, locating access to safe abortion within the fundamental rights to dignity, autonomy, privacy, and health. Despite these changes, the law and practice of abortion continue to deny pregnant persons access to safe and comprehensive abortion care.
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Searching for a Government
On 21 January 2023, Slovak voters had the opportunity to use their constitutional right to vote in a referendum on a constitutional amendment on early elections. The referendum was, however, invalid, because a valid referendum in Slovakia requires a turnout of at least half of all eligible voters. The referendum took place less than six weeks after the no-confidence vote to the Slovak executive by the Slovak parliament. This development prompted steps towards amending the Constitution so that early elections become constitutionally permissible.
Continue reading >>War over Israel’s Judicial Independence
The new Israeli government wasted no time in initiating an all-out attack on the independence of the judiciary. It is promoting in full speed two parallel proposals to reform the judiciary in the hope that at least one of them, or a hybrid of both will be codified. The government claims that its proposed judicial reform will promote a more democratic and representative judiciary. Yet, a careful analysis of its proposed reform suggests that the government intends to fully politicize the judiciary. It will change the process of appointment to the Judicial Selection Committee, placing control in the hands of the government. Simultaneously, it will neutralize the ability of the opposition in the Knesset and the professional elites (the Justices and the Bar Association) to protect judicial independence from governmental takeover.
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Is Criminality a Russian Virtue Worth Cultivating?
On 13 December 2022, the Russian State Duma unanimously approved, in the first reading, the bill on the imposition of Russian criminal law and criminal procedure upon the Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia provinces of Ukraine. The Bill flagrantly infringes the Russian Constitution, criminal legislation and international law, essentially transforming the occupied territories of Ukraine into a lawless area. Yet again, the Bill underscores the imperial nature of the Russian war of aggression.
Continue reading >>The many troubles of the Fedotova judgment
On 17 January 2023, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights ruled in Fedotova v Russia that the absence of any legal recognition and protection for same-sex couples amounts to a violation of Art. 8 of the Convention. For 30 Member States of the Council of Europe (CoE), this judgment changes nothing since their legal orders already allow same-sex couples to enter into marriage or into other forms of legally recognised relationships. For the remaining countries, however, the Fedotova judgment amounts to an external judicial pressure to change their legal landscape in a politically very sensitive area of LGBT+ rights. Fedotova is probably the most political judgment of all times.
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The Council of Europe Creates a Black Box for AI Policy
The Council of Europe Committee on AI has made a startling decision to carry forward future work on the development of an international convention on AI behind closed doors, despite the Council’s call for the Democratic Governance of Artificial Intelligence in a 2020 resolution. It is a surprising move from an international organization that has been at the forefront of efforts to promote greater transparency and accountability for the technology that is transforming the world.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 7: UN Special Rapporteur Margaret Satterthwaite
On the 24th of January, the Day of the Endangered Lawyer, we conclude our podcast with a conversation with Margaret Satterthwaite. She is a professor of Clinical Law at New York University and was appointed as United Nations Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers in October 2022. We talk about global trends in challenges to the independence of lawyers, and we talk about structural problems that need to be addressed to defend the defenders around the globe.
Continue reading >>The Sultan’s Last Dance
Long-time ruler Recep Tayyip Erdoğan recently declared that he would run for president for the last time in the upcoming elections in 2023, indicating the end of his political career that stretched over four decades. This may sound like a strategic move to mobilize voters but it is actually not possible for him to run again according to the current constitution. The possibility for a renewed or "last" run for office does not lie in the hands of Erdoğan alone.
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Judges, Political Mandates and Judicial Independence in Germany
In Germany, 2022 has been a turbulent year regarding former (extreme) right-wing Members of Parliament (MP) returning to their original office as civil servants and judges. Two cases created special great media attention: Jens Maier and Birgit Malsack-Winkemann, demanded (and partly succeeded) to return to serve as judges again. These cases bring the (often problematic) relationship between judges and politics into sharper focus. Therefore, we would like to provide access to the German debate on to an English reading audience as food for possible comparative insights.
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Understanding and Regulating ChatGPT, and Other Large Generative AI Models
Large generative AI models are shaking up the research community and society at large, rapidly changing the way we communicate, illustrate, and create. What has rarely been noticed, however, is that the EU, since the spring of 2022, has quietly been preparing far-reaching rules to explicitly regulate these models. We make three concrete proposals.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 6: The European Union
In the sixth episode of our rule of law podcast #DefendingTheDefenders with Deutscher Anwaltverein, we talk about the European Union and the state of the professional freedom of attorneys there. We want to hear from attorneys professional organisations as well as from regulators, and have spoken to both sides.
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Internet collapse made in Europe
Nothing has changed since the last time there was a debate regarding the relationship between telecommunication providers and online content providers. Nevertheless, the European Commission is willing to take a massive gamble and entertain the possibility of regulation to oblige online services to pay their "fair share" towards increased bandwidth consumption. This regulatory shift could risk an Internet collapse in Europe.
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Farewell to “Personenwahl”
The traffic light coalition’s (Ampelkoalition) draft for electoral reform opens a new chapter in the history of personalized proportional representation in Germany. The story began in London on February 16, 1946 (see Knowles). Representatives of the British occupation administration in Germany and the British government agreed at that time on a new local electoral law for their occupation zone. As part of this new system, one part of the local deputies was to be elected by relative majority in constituencies, the other based on party electoral lists according to the proportional representation of the parties.
Continue reading >>The Populist Constitutional Revolution in Israel
Israel’s Minister of Justice has published memorandums outlining the (first) major steps in the constitutional overhaul planned by Netanyahu’s new government – an overhaul at the epicenter of the rise of constitutional populism in Israel. The paradoxes of Israeli constitutional law make it vulnerable to such a populist attack, which occurs within a specific ethno-national context involving ongoing military occupation.
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A Possible Regime Change in Israel
Israel is rapidly undergoing a regime change/constitutional revolution - Hungary style - as reflected by various draft bills placed on the Knesset’s agenda during the past days, accompanied by a grand plan of reform presented by the Minister of Justice on January 4th. The new Israeli government only took office a few weeks ago, but these plans, evidently, were prepared carefully over several years. If successful, Israel may fully lose its democracy.
Continue reading >>7 Years Later: Poland as a Legal Black Hole
The EU is faced with a Member State where all of its top courts are now unlawfully composed; where every single judicial appointment procedure since 2018 is inherently defective due to the involvement of an unconstitutional body; and where core EU and ECHR requirements relating to effective judicial protection and the fundamental right to an independent court established by law have been held “unconstitutional” in 2021 and 2022 by the body masquerading as Poland’s Constitutional Tribunal.
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Judicial Impartiality in Indonesia Under Attack
The independence of judicial power in Indonesia is in a precarious situation. Lately, the parliament haphazardly dismissed Constitutional Judge Aswanto, a parliament-proposed Constitutional Judge. This situation was exacerbated through the inauguration of the parliament-proposed substitute, Constitutional Judge Guntur Hamzah, by President Widodo who could have refused to authorize this illegal act. Instead, President Widodo took part in the destruction of the Constitutional Court, putting judicial independence in Indonesia in jeopardy, particularly facing the upcoming 2024 election.
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Tougher Integrity Rules for the European Parliament
The current scandal at the European Parliament might trigger an overdue discussion: Foreign officials should be either prohibited to lobby on legislation or be subject to rigorous disclosure rules.
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Subsidy Fraud, Relevant Markets and Presidential Elections
Former prime minister and now a member of the Czech parliament Andrej Babiš scored a victory only a few days before the upcoming Czech presidential elections. On 9 January 2023, the Municipal Court in Prague finally issued a verdict in a criminal case involving him and his colleague Ms Nagyová on charges of grant fraud and damaging the financial interests of the European Union. The court concluded that the acts of Mr Babiš and Ms Nagyová, as framed by the prosecution, did not constitute a felony. Hence, to the surprise of many, including Mr Babiš’ attorney, the court acquitted both defendants. The importance of the case can hardly be understated.
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The Dutch Asylum Policy for Russian Draft Evaders
In a one page letter of 13 December, the Dutch state secretary for immigration Eric van der Burg explained to Dutch parliament how asylum claims made by Russian draft evaders will be dealt with. The new Dutch policy makes a distinction between Russian conscripts and Russians reservists who attempt to evade the mobilisation which the Russian president announced last September. Conscripts will continue to enjoy a form of temporary protection in the Netherlands. Asylum claims of Russians who evade mobilisation will, however, be decided on an individual basis. Importantly – and controversially – the state secretary suggests that claims of the latter category may now be denied because the Russian mobilisation has been completed.
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Qatargate: The tip of the iceberg?
It is strange that the European Union, which is so insistent that Member States and third countries should comply with the rule of law, does not yet have a binding global framework for implementing the principles of transparency and good administration. Unfortunately, thirteen years after the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, legislative transparency is far from being ensured and Article 298 TFEU on good administration has only been triggered this year for the first time.
Continue reading >>Political Terror in the Shade of Bolsonarism
The attacks of Bolsonarist supporters on democracy and the rule of law in Brazil have reached an extent that has never been witnessed in Brazil since the promulgation of the Constitution of 1988. On 8 January 2023, emulating the events of 6 January 2020 in the USA, a mob of 3,000 Bolsonaro supporters invaded and destroyed the buildings of the National Congress, the Federal Supreme Court, and the Presidency of the Republic in Brazil, which are all located in the famous quarter known as the “Three Branches Square”. In a way, the invasion of the US Capitol has been more tragic, given that human lives have been lost. But there is a sense in which the assault in Brazil was more devastating from a symbolic point of view.
Continue reading >>A House in Disorder
In this post, I’ll explain what has been going on as the House of Representatives has cast an unprecedented number of ballots for Speaker of the House. There are quaint legal reasons why all of this is happening. But then I want to ponder what this says about the ability of the Republican Party to govern the United States because this early-days shutdown of the House follows a pattern in which, for nearly 40 years, the Republicans have wanted to both dominate the federal government and shut it down.
Continue reading >>A Ukraine Special Tribunal with Legitimacy Problems?
The call for a Special Tribunal for the Russian war of aggression in Ukraine ('UkrTrib') is also getting louder in the German political discourse. The proposal goes back to an initiative by the British international lawyer and writer Philippe Sands, who was quickly joined by a number of prominent politicians and international (criminal) lawyers), but this is misleading for several reasons, not least because the IMT was a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany and the following regime change, which in the case of Russia is unforeseeable.
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Hostile Constitutional Interpretation
What to do with the façade institution that was once known as the Polish Constitutional Court in a way that would respect the Constitution? A recent and important proposal has argued that the judges who were legally elected by the current Parliament though they have supported the politicization of justice should enjoy the same right to retire as their legal predecessors. We have serious doubts as to the long-term desirability of such a solution. We need a theory that explains why also these lawfully elected judges should be let go as a result of their blatantly unconstitutional adjudication, and why the entire unconstitutional body should be extinguished, rather than simply be tinkered with here and there.
Continue reading >>#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 5: Colombia
The fifth episode of #DefendingTheDefenders, the rule of law podcast by Deutscher Anwaltverein and Verfassungsblog, focuses on Colombia, where the situation for attorneys and human rights defenders is particularly dangerous.
Continue reading >>Interfering with Free Speech and the Fate of Turkey
On 21 April 1998, the then mayor of İstanbul, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was sentenced to one year (subsequently reduced to ten months) in prison and a hefty fine by the State Security Court of Diyarbakır for “incitement to hatred and hostility on grounds of religious discrimination”. His criminal act was that of reading two provocative verses from the poem “Divine Army” by Cevat Örnek (“the minarets are bayonets, the domes are helmets / mosques are our barracks, the faithful our soldiers”) during a rally of the Islamist Welfare Party (of “Strasbourg fame”) in 1997. Twenty-five years after the aforementioned rally, Turkey experienced a free speech case involving another conservative-leaning political figure on the rise: on 14 December 2022, İstanbul’s mayor Ekrem İmamoğlu was sentenced by İstanbul’s 7th Criminal Court of First Instance to a term of imprisonment of two years, seven months and fifteen days for criminal defamation.
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An Institutional Crisis that Dissolved Like a Sugar Cube
In mid-December, Spain faced a constitutional logjam when judges blocked a government bill to change how the judiciary’s governing council, the General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), operates. But when the situation seemed to be heading towards a serious institutional crisis, on 27 December, the CGPJ unanimously elected its two corresponding jurists. The crisis has dissolved without a trace, like a sugar cube in tea. But it has left a very bitter aftertaste.
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Preserving Procedural Fairness in The AI Era
AI systems have been used and challenged by individuals affected by their output. In the absence of a regulatory framework, national courts in Europe have been called upon to address claimants’ demands for fairness and legal protection. While they have been activists in preserving individuals’ procedural rights by setting requirements for AI systems, the courts' role is, however, doomed to change when the AI Act enters into force.
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The Transfer of Ownership in the ‘Patagonia Case’
September 15th 2022 was a big day for the climate movement. The owner of Patagonia – a large multinational corporation producing wearables – transferred 98% of his shares (worth 3 billion dollars) to the newly established Holdfast Collective, a foundation aimed at fighting climate change. Are we at the dawn of a new type of capitalism, where profit is made to work for nature rather than against it?
Continue reading >>Annexation is in the Details
The influx of news coming out of Israel these days renders it difficult to grasp the full scale and meaning of the constitutional and legal changes Israel is facing. In this blogpost, I wish to focus on one aspect of the upcoming changes, namely those that regard Israel’s control of the Occupied Territories. On December 28, 2022, Israel’s incoming Minister of Finance, Bezalel Smotrich, published an op-ed in the WSJ in which he argued, among other things, that the changes regarding the division of responsibilities concerning the Occupied Territories among Israeli bodies do not “entail changing the political or legal status of the area”. However, an examination of the changes included in the Coalition’s Basic Principles, published on December 12, 2022, and the coalitionary agreement between Netanyahu’s Likud Party and the Religious Zionist party, portrays a very different picture.
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The Theoretical Limits on the Override Power
In 2019, anticipating that Israel might one day adopt an express override mechanism that would enable the Israeli legislature (the Knesset) to override the Basic Laws (Israel’s Constitution), I developed a novel theoretical framework to limit the override power. With the new hard-right government, my theory might be tested in practice. I therefore want to make this theory available in English for international audiences.
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Under Black Skies
Since the Indian state unilaterally abrogated the autonomous status of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) in August 2019, human rights defenders (HRDs) have been confronted with an unprecedented closing of civic spaces, forcing them to restrict or stop their engagement. While HRDs have been subjected to state repression for more than 30 years since the onset of the 1989 insurgency in J&K, the developments in 2019 mark a turning point, both in strategy and methods employed by the Indian state.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 4: Turkey
In the fourth episode of #DefendingTheDefenders we talk about the situation of lawyers in Turkey with Veysel Ok. He is an attorney in Istanbul and the Co-Director of the Media and Law Studies Association, a non-profit which monitors and defends freedom of expression cases against journalists.
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“Tuhindi Article” (“The Articles Were Yours”)
Through what was described with war-time imageries of a “constitutional surgical strike” and a “constitutional siege”, in August 2019 a radical change was made to what innocuously appeared earlier in the Constitution of India as Article 370. This blog post will attempt to problematise the use of the Indian constitutional framework in the engagement with Jammu and Kashmir. It will also hint towards an alternative role where the use of the Constitutional framework can, despite its limitations, make space for questions of self-determination, and contested sovereignties.
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Suppressing Political Dissent
The administrative preventive detention law Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act, 1978 (PSA) is one of the most stringent laws to uphold in what is referred to as the “security of the state and the public order.” For decades, thousands of Kashmiris have been incarcerated under this law for expressing political views contrary to official state narratives. Creating a state of exception where people are not ordinary criminals but extraordinary criminals who pose a threat to the national integrity of the Indian state, the PSA has stripped countless individuals of their basic rights.
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A fragmented response to media freedom at risk in the Union
The Polish and Hungarian governments have famously parted ways over responses to the Russo-Ukraine war. However, internally, both continue to rely on similar structural changes in the media environment that help them target voters and undermine elections fairness. The EU’s response to the media freedom and pluralism crisis in Hungary and Poland has been more restrained and also qualitatively different from its answer to the judicial independence crisis or threats to academic freedoms and minority rights.
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“We Know Where You Live”
"We know where you live" is one of the most dreaded and threatening statements a Kashmiri can hear from the state armed forces. It can mean a number of things to an ordinary Kashmiri, including “we have information on you” and “we are watching you”. It can also be perceived as an immediate threat to the life and safety of the person given the absolute impunity enjoyed by the state armed forces.
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The Soviet Famine and Criminalising “Denialism”
The precedent set by international human rights law and the case law of European constitutional courts allows the exceptional criminalisation of Holocaust denial. But the same “exceptional” treatment does not apply to other events which may or may not consist of a “genocide, crime against humanity or a war crime”. Thus, EU Member States struggle to strike a balance between their obligations deriving from international human rights law and those deriving from EU law.
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Much Ado About Nothing
On 15 December, the European Commission adopted a European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles for the Digital Decade. It builds upon primary EU law instruments, and the question inevitably arises of what additional value and effect the Declaration may have.
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How the European Political Community Could Support the Accession of Ukraine to the EU
Very few people expected President Zelensky and his government to even think about EU membership amidst the avalanching invasion of the Russian army. In parallel with the accelerating speed of Ukraine’s accession, the EU was searching for new forms of political cooperation to strengthen its resilience and ensure mutual solidarity in times of intimidating security and economic crises in Europe. The European Political Community contains several important advantages to be considered by Ukraine against the backdrop of its accession process to the EU.
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Judicial Reform in Times of War
Russia launched its big war against Ukraine at a time when Ukraine has started implementing a comprehensive and genuine judicial reform. Ukraine has not only managed to resist the attack but also kept implementing the reforms and strengthening democratic institutions. This article describes the Ukrainian experience of the functioning of the judiciary and reforming judicial governance institutions during martial law times.
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Судова реформа в умовах війни
Росія розпочала свою велику війну проти України в той час, коли Україна розпочала впровадження комплексної та справжньої судової реформи. Україна не тільки змогла протистояти нападу, але й продовжила реалізацію реформ та зміцнення демократичних інститутів. У цій статті описано український досвід функціонування судової влади та реформування інститутів суддівського врядування в умовах воєнного стану. Ключові уроки та успішні рішення можуть стати маяком для всього регіону.
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On the Nexus between Separation of Powers and Judicial Power
This exercise in comparative constitutional law shows how, paradoxically, positioning a country on either side of the spectrum of separation of powers structures may lead to similar curtailment of the judiciary’s power, though courts in the two opposing regimes may use very different, and even opposing, judicial doctrines to reach similar non-interventionalist results. Moreover, though scholars typically study these common law judicial doctrines independently of one another, they are all a manifestation of how strong or weak the separation of powers in a given country is. Ultimately, the judicial branch may supplement, but not supplant, the democratically elected political branches, irrespective of the separation of powers in the country in question
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Санкційна дилема ЄС: як бути з союзником Росії – Білоруссю
Драматичні події, що відбуваються в Україні, та зростання загроз безпеці самого ЄС призвели до міні-революції в санкційній політиці ЄС. Тепер набір санкцій ЄС включає деякі нові заходи, такі як заборона трансляції, які раніше були на розсуд національних органів влади. Ці зміни поставили ЄС перед дилемою щодо його політики санкцій щодо Білорусі.
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The EU sanctions dilemma of how to deal with the Russian ally Belarus
The dramatic events taking place in Ukraine and growing security threats to the EU itself led to a mini-revolution in the EU sanctions policy. Now the EU sanctions toolbox includes some novel measures, such as broadcast bans, which were previously under the discretion of national authorities. These changes put the EU in a dilemma with respect to its sanctions policy towards Belarus.
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The Road to Repression
On 2 December 2022, the UN Special Rapporteur Freedom of Association sent a remarkable Tweet. “Australia – ”, the Special Rapporteur tweeted, “I am alarmed at #NSW court’s prison term against #ClimateProtester Deanna Coco and refusal to grant bail until a March 2023 appeal hearing. Peaceful protesters should never be criminalised or imprisoned.” The Special Rapporteur was referring to the arrest of Deanna ‘Violet’ Coco to 15 months in prison with a non-parole period of eight months for blocking one of five lanes of traffic on Sydney Harbour Bridge during a climate change protest for 28 minutes.
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A Nail in the Coffin of Hong Kong’s Rule of Law
Media tycoon and pro-democracy activist Jimmy Lai has been the continued target of prosecution by the Hong Kong government. In a recent judgment, he has been convicted of fraud and handed a prison sentence of almost six years. As a result, another worrying development in a National Security Law (NSL) case against Lai, in which he is accused of inter alia conspiring to ‘collude with a foreign country or external elements’, has received significantly less attention. This concerns a 13 December ruling by the High Court of Hong Kong to adjourn the NSL trial until September 2023, in order for the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPCSC) to give an interpretation on whether foreign barristers are allowed to represent clients in NSL cases. In this blog post, I will use the NSL case against Jimmy Lai to examine some of the consequences of the NSL for the rule of law and the rights of defendants in Hong Kong.
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Судовий контроль та санкції ЄС проти фізичних осіб
21 лютого, напередодні вторгнення Росії в Україну, ЄС запровадив санкції проти п’яти осіб, пов’язаних з «так званими виборами» у Криму. Два дні потому, після перекидання Росією військ на Донбас, ЄС ухвалив далекосяжний пакет санкцій, який, серед іншого, розширив список підсанкційних осіб, включивши до нього 351 депутата російської Думи та 27 інших осіб. У цій публікації розглядається законодавство ЄС щодо санкцій проти фізичних осіб та його застосування у відповідь на війну в Україні.
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Judicial scrutiny and EU Sanctions against individuals
On February 21, the eve of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the EU adopted sanctions against five individuals linked to the “so-called elections” in Crimea. Two days later, following Russia’s deployment of troops to the Donbas region of Ukraine, the EU adopted a far-reaching sanctions package that, inter alia, expanded the list of sanctioned individuals to include all 351 members of the Russian Duma and 27 others. This post considers EU law on sanctions against individuals and how it has been applied in response to the war in Ukraine.
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The Politics of Internet Shutdowns
Frequent internet shutdowns in the Indian region of Kashmir provide a valuable case study for how technology governance can become a tool of political control. The Indian government leads the world in these techniques, instituting 75 shutdowns over the course of 2022 alone. In this blog post, I argue that internet shutdowns have become a standard method for federal and state officials in India to silence those who dissent from the governing BJP agenda. The government’s repressive policies will further erode India’s democratic system unless legislators push back and create a more transparent and accountable system for technology governance in India.
Continue reading >>Санкції ЄС-Україна: чи настав час поглибити співпрацю?
Європейський Союз намагається вирішити питання війни Росії з Україною різними шляхами. Всього декілька прикладів: ЄС виділяє додаткові кошти на підтримку України, країни-члени надсилають зброю та військове спорядження, Брюссель очолює міжнародну кампанію з притягнення до відповідальності російських воєнних злочинців, і останнє, але не менш важливе – ЄС запровадив найбільший в історії пакет санкцій, щоб зашкодити Росії вести агресивну війну.
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EU-Ukraine sanctions: Is it time for deeper convergence?
The European Union has been addressing the war in Ukraine against Russia in various ways. To name only a few, the EU has allocated additional funds to support Ukraine, Member States are sending weapons and arms equipment, Brussels is leading the international campaign to hold Russian war criminals accountable and, last but not least, the EU has imposed the largest sanctions package in its history to harm Russia’s ability to wage aggressive war.
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The Right to be Forgotten in 2022
On 8 December 2022, the Court of Justice of the European Union delivered its latest landmark judgment on the ‘right to be forgotten’. Despite the largely incremental character, the continuing legal manifestation of the right to erasure/be forgotten/de-referencing raises more fundamental questions on the governance of the datafication of society in the EU.
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The Post-Truth about Corruption in the European Union
Even if the European Parliament has in recent years managed to get a majority to scold member states Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Malta on corruption it has a far more difficult time in controlling its own members. The current Qatar gate so far involves just a few MPs alongside EP vice-president PASOK Eva Kaili. However, Qatar paid luxury trips for several MEPs, although a few refused, and some more MPs had offered public endorsement to Qatar already. The European Parliament is the absolute sovereign of its own integrity. If it wants to cut opportunities by offering full transparency on meetings, access, expenses and travel, it can- good proposals have been laying around for years.
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Чи вбʼє війна Росії верховенство права в Україні та Європі?
Життєздатність верховенства права в Україні, Європі, а також у Росії чи будь-де у світі, може витримати навіть насильницький натиск там, де люди готові боротися за інститути та практику верховенства права, іноді з великим ризиком для себе. Якщо всі волелюбні країни будуть підтримувати одна одну повним і глибоким співробітництвом для просування миру, демократії, прав людини та верховенства права на всіх рівнях, як це робить ЄС з Україною протягом десятиліть, верховенство права, демократія та права людини будуть постійно зміцнюватися і давати людям все більше можливостей процвітати в умовах миру, безпеки та людської гідності.
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Will Russia’s War Kill the Rule of Law in Ukraine and Europe?
The vibrancy of the rule of law in Ukraine, Europe, and for that matter in Russia or anywhere in the world, can survive even violent onslaught, wherever people are willing to fight for rule of law institutions and practices, sometimes at great risk to themselves. If all freedom loving countries support one another with full and deep cooperation to promote peace, democracy, human rights, and the rule of law at all levels, as the EU has done with Ukraine for decades, the rule of law, democracy and human rights will continuously strengthen and increasingly enable people to thrive in conditions of peace, security and human dignity.
Continue reading >>Constitutional Erosion in Kashmir
The erstwhile State of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) enjoyed a special position in the political and constitutional landscape of the post-colonial Indian State. While the de-operationalisation (popularly referred to as ‘abrogation’) of Article 370 on 5 August 2019, and other associated moves by the Indian State, might be seen as the final nail in the coffin of the constitutional erosion in J&K, the central claim of this blog post is that the constitutional autonomy of the erstwhile State has rather seen a gradual erosion ever since the Constituent Assembly of the State was dissolved on 26 January 1957—the day the Constitution of J&K came into force.
Continue reading >>Constitutional Patriotism for the Marginalized
Constitutions depict social realities, tell stories, reflect on people and culture. They are the embodiment of a state reality, matured by a national history, admonishing and guiding politics and the broader public. The Indian Constitution tells a unique story: Of combined liberalism and pluralism, of a reality of marginalization in society and of constant search for identity. Recent developments in majority-Muslim Kashmir have made these narratives more visible than ever and point to a new lens of analysis.
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Kashmir in Turmoil
Kashmir is not only the object of disputes over territory between India and Pakistan as well as India and China. It also witnesses violent conflicts between the Indian security forces (which include the army and paramilitary forces) and an armed Kashmiri insurgency that seeks autonomy from the Indian nation-state. The latter conflict has escalated anew since 5 August 2019 when the BJP-led Indian government abrogated the special status that the Muslim-majority state Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) had previously enjoyed and significantly curtailed the civil liberties of people living in the region. This blog post contextualises the events of August 2019 and thereafter. At the same time, it provides an introduction and some background information to the posts assembled in this symposium titled Casting Light on Kashmir.
Continue reading >>The Slippery Slope of a Snooping Strasbourg
Last week, the ECtHR ruled in Spasov, for the first time, that there was a 'denial of justice' and thus a violation of Article 6(1) ECHR due to a manifest error of law by a national court regarding the interpretation and application of EU law. A Romanian court had convicted Mr Spasov, the owner and captain of a Bulgarian-flagged vessel, of illegal fishing inside Romania’s exclusive economic zone. Spasov is an important principled judgment that further intertwines the EU and ECHR legal systems.
Continue reading >>Back to the Future
After over nine months of preparatory meetings, the Turkish opposition coalition consisting of six political parties have announced their constitutional amendment proposal. While it has been plausibly argued in this blog that constitutional restoration in the case of Turkey can be conducted without necessarily amending the Constitution, the main cause unifying the opposition coalition at the moment is a comprehensive proposal for constitutional amendment that allegedly aims for transitioning towards a ‘strengthened’ parliamentary system. In this blogpost, I will evaluate several key provisions of the opposition’s proposal and explain its likely path towards adoption in the aftermath of the upcoming general elections.
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To Speak, or not to Speak
Several national football federations and their teams had planned to wear a rainbow armband (also called the “One-Love” armband) when entering the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, which symbolizes solidarity with the LGBTQ+ community. Promptly, this simple gesture in favor of respect of human rights and diversity was forbidden by FIFA. The days following the ban, players and teams expressed their unease about FIFA’s strict position and about the uncertainty of the potential sanctions. FIFA’s practice towards freedom of expression lacks consistency, which further highlights the protection gap that exists between the lex sportiva, the rules and regulations governing sports, and human rights law in respect of freedom of expression. How could the differences be reconciled?
Continue reading >>The Qatar Scandal and Third Country Lobbying
The EU was given the worst kind of early Christmas present: a corruption scandal that has rocked the Union to its core giving ammunition to anti-EU populist actors and drawing attention and schadenfreude from outside the EU. The facts of the case remain under investigation, but the case has already been approached from many angles.Qatar has been given the role of an international villain in this story, and the EU has used the opportunities to frame the case as malign third country efforts to corrupt the EU. While there is no denying the corrupting role of a third country, the EU’s framing enables it to pose as a victim, which, as I argue in this blogpost, is intellectually dishonest and harmful.
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Articulating Legitimacy through Policy Recommendations
On 6 December, Meta's Oversight Board issued a policy advisory opinion on 'cross-check', a content moderation system used by the company to avoid the erroneous removal of content shared by highly influential users on its platforms. Despite the opinion’s directness in calling Meta out for the disproportionate attention paid to corporate interests to the detriment of its human rights commitments, the OB’s decision presents an underlying duplicity, as it criticises policy and design choices replicated in the OB’s own architecture. This curtails the institution's capacity to enhance accountability and legitimacy.
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Zuverlässig rechtsextrem
In der Diskussion um die Konsequenzen aus der Reichsbürger*innenverschwörung werden die Stimmen derjenigen lauter, die für eine Verschärfung des Waffenrechts eintreten. Politiker*innen der FDP, darunter Bundesjustizminister Marco Buschmann, sind dem unter Hinweis darauf entgegengetreten, dass die derzeitige Rechtslage ausreiche, um Waffenverbote gegenüber Rechtsextremen durchzusetzen. Wie dringend der Handlungsbedarf ist, offenbart aber eine Entscheidung des Verwaltungsgerichtshofs in Baden-Württemberg aus dem Juli 2022.
Continue reading >>Good Job, Move On
In early December, six political parties from the Turkish opposition have announced a joint and comprehensive constitutional reform proposal. If enacted, the proposal would amend a total of 84 articles of the Turkish Constitution, almost half of the nation’s governing charter. While this proposal deserves praise as a unique example of consensus building in Turkish political and constitutional history, the opposition should now focus on winning the upcoming elections instead of getting bogged down in the details of the proposal.
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Moving On in Strasbourg
Russia’s justified expulsion from the Council of Europe after the beginning of the full-scale military invasion in Ukraine continues to pose problems for the European Court of Human Rights and the European Convention machinery in general. Even though Russia remained bound by the Convention until 16 September 2022, a number of decisions in Moscow, but also in Strasbourg, made matters complicated. Especially processing the outstanding 17,000 cases and enforcing those judgments now require innovative solutions.
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An early Christmas Gift from Karlsruhe?
The 6 December Karlsruhe ruling on the constitutional complaints against the ‘Act Ratifying the EU Own Resources Decision’ will be received by many as a Saint Nicholas present. This time, the Federal Constitutional Court avoided the head-on collision with the EU it caused with its PSPP judgment two and a half years ago. Instead, it opted for a seemingly constructive assessment of the EU’s pandemic recovery instrument. In particular, it found that the ORD did not manifestly exceed the competences conferred on the EU – i.e., it was not ultra vires – and did not affect the constitutional identity of the Basic Law. While the ruling is not as constraining as some might have feared, it does not give card blanche for a more permanent EU fiscal capacity.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 3: Afghanistan
When the Taliban took over power in Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, it was a disaster for women. Immediately, they were stripped of their rights, in particular their political rights. In the third episode of #DefendingTheDefenders, a podcast by Deutscher Anwaltverein and Verfassungsblog, we talk to Shabnam Salehi about the human rights situation in Afghanistan and the rights of women in particular and to Matthias Lehnert about the German and European Migration Law system.
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Einbürgerung und Ausbürgerung
Die von der Bundesinnenministerin vorangetriebene Staatsangehörigkeitsrechtsreform zur Erleichterung der Einbürgerung wirft altbekannte Fragen der Zuordnung von Personen zu Staaten und die damit verbundenen Zugehörigkeitsvorstellungen zu einem Staatsvolk auf. Allerdings liegt auch bei dem aktuellen Reformvorhaben die Aufmerksamkeit nur auf dem Erwerb der Staatsangehörigkeit. Dieser Fokus lässt die andere Seite der Medaille unberücksichtigt: Um die Möglichkeit von Mehrstaatigkeit konsequent für das gesamte Staatsangehörigkeitsrecht umzusetzen, muss die Diskussion zusätzlich für das Ausbürgerungsrecht geführt werden.
Continue reading >>No Rainbow without Rain?
On 6 December 2022, Latvian National Electronic Mass Media Council (NEPLP) revoked the broadcasting licence of the independent Russian TV channel ‘TV Rain’. The measures taken against TV Rain in Latvia raise intricate legal questions from an EU law point of view: Is the crackdown on the anti-war Russian TV channel compatible with EU-wide rules on audiovisual media? Can the Latvian government lawfully request YouTube to make TV rain’s channel inaccessible in Latvia? This blogpost argues that EU law is powerless when confronted with possibly unjustified national restrictions against media outlets and their growing spillover into the Internet sphere.
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The Hungary Files
The battle over the rule of law in Hungary is coming to a head. Two separate but related dossiers landed on the EU Council’s agenda on Tuesday, 6 December: firstly, whether to suspend 7.5 billion Euros in funds under the EU’s cohesion policy under the new rule of law conditionality mechanism; and secondly, whether to approve the Hungarian national recovery and resilience plan. Both files are currently stuck in a political limbo as the member states cannot agree on a common course of action, complicated by the fact that Orbán is holding his veto over Brussel’s head on an aid package for Ukraine and a global corporate tax, both of which require unanimity in the Council. Now the question is: Who will move first, Orbán or the other member states?
Continue reading >>‘Inherently Repugnant’?
Indonesia has recently gained the international spotlight for criminalising sex outside marriage in its new Criminal Code. Criminalisation of sex outside marriage and cohabitation constitutes a setback for the right to privacy, which covers consensual sexual activity between adults in private. Nevertheless, the bigger picture is much more nuanced.
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Make It Consistent
In New Zealand, as in many jurisdictions, the law specifies certain minimum age limits for acts such as getting married (16 years), enlisting in the armed forces (17 years), purchasing alcohol (18 years), entering contracts (18 years) and so on. One particular age limit, that relating to voting (18 years), has recently come under scrutiny as a result of the advocacy efforts of Make It 16, a group campaigning for the extension of the franchise to 16 and 17 year olds in New Zealand. As part of its campaign, Make It 16 commenced litigation, which eventually culminated in the New Zealand Supreme Court declaring in Make It 16 v Attorney-General that the legislated minimum voting age was inconsistent with the right to be free from discrimination, and that the inconsistency had not been justified.
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Upgrading German Citizenship
As part of their broader agenda to “modernize” its immigration laws, Germany’s government has proposed to ease immigrants’ access to citizenship. The opposition – especially the CDU – as well as the liberal government coalition partner FDP are not happy with this. Among other things, they are concerned that the new law would seriously diminish the value of German citizenship and insist that immigrants should successfully integrate before they become German nationals. I argue in the following that these concerns, and further claims, are unfounded.
Continue reading >>Throwing the Delegation Doctrine to the Winds
In November 2022, the Indian Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology published the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, 2022 (‘the 2022 Bill’). In this article, I analyse the 2022 Bill from a constitutional law perspective. I argue that the 2022 Bill’s provisions as to subordinate legislation fly in the face of the Indian Supreme Court’s delegation doctrine inasmuch as these provisions set no coherently determinable legislative policy, thereby allowing the Executive to exercise plenary legislative power through delegated legislation. This, I further argue, is a breach of the principle of separation of powers as it exists in Indian constitutional jurisprudence.
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From Past Injustices to Today’s Unlawful Consequences / Eurocentric legal systems with a global social claim to validity?
In this split contribution to the blog debate on "Restitution, Colonialism and the Courts", Natalia Loyola Daiqui argues that the claim to eliminate the unlawful consequences of state action (Folgenbeseitigungsanspruch) can serve as a legal basis for restitution claims. Responding to this claim, Sebastian-Manès Sprute raises the question in how far relying on German administrative law would revive the asymmetrical colonial power relationship. restitution and repatriation claims of formerly colonized communities are subject to German administrative law.
Continue reading >>The Commission’s missed opportunity to reclaim competition law for the Rechtsstaat
On 30 November 2022, the European Commission took two important decisions to protect the EU budget against possible breaches of the rule of law in Hungary. First, the Commission concluded that the conditions for applying the Conditionality mechanism in Hungary remain and Hungary needs to take further and more credible action to eliminate the remaining risks for the EU budget. Second, the Commission has assessed Hungary’s Recovery and Resilience Plan and froze the disbursement of the RRF until the full and effective implementation of 27 ”super milestones” has taken place. Unfortunately, with these measures, missed opportunity to reclaim the importance of competition law in the Rechtsstaat.
Continue reading >>Provenance Research and Claims to Bangwa Collections
On the basis of a case concerning the Bangwa collection in the Municipal Museum of Brunswick, this contribution proposes that a human rights law approach and cooperative provenance research are key in dealing with collections from colonial context. Fifty years after the UN General Assembly urged for the return of colonial cultural takings to victims of expropriation and twenty years after the Declaration on the Value and Importance of Universal Museums – by which museums justified their continued possession of such artefacts – return ceremonies that gained much attention attest that times have changed.
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Putting an End to Minority Voter Disenfranchising in Hungary
On 11 November, the European Court of Human Rights published its decision in a case initiated eight years ago, which found that the Hungarian parliamentary electoral system's regulations on the representation of national minorities in parliament violates the right to free elections (Article 3 of the 1st Protocol to the ECHR, Bakirdzi and E.C. v. Hungary). The plaintiffs claimed that the Electoral Act of 2011 was unlawful on three points: the secrecy of the vote, the real election and the preferential quota for minority representation. In its judgment, the Court found in favour of the applicants on all three points and ordered the Hungarian State to pay damages, putting an end to a decade-long violation of voting right. The following analysis is not primarily intended to provide a detailed description of the judgment itself, but to review the unlawful situation and the necessary actions resulting from the judgment.
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A Constitution’s Hollow Promise
On 26 November 2022, the Taiwanese people had their authentic constitutional voice heard for the first time in history by casting votes in a referendum on a constitutional amendment that would lower the age of voting from 20 to 18, and that of candidacy from 23 to 18 except as otherwise provided by the Constitution or legislation. Given that Taiwan’s current Constitution was adopted by a Constituent National Assembly in China in 1946 when Japan still held sovereignty over Taiwan de jure and all the previous constitutional amendments were adopted without receiving direct approval from the Taiwanese people, the holding of referendum itself is historic. Yet, this latest round of constitutional reform on Taiwan’s road towards an ever more democratic politics ends up as a damp squib.
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Law and the Challenge of Rehumanization
The report “We want them back”, published earlier this year, found at least 5958 human remains from colonials contexts in the collections of museums and scientific institutions in the geographical area of Berlin. The report, commissioned by the Berlin Senate, is the first systematic survey of the provenance of human remains from colonial contexts in Berlin’s institutions. Why – given the history – are these human remains still here? Where is the systematic effort to repatriate them and return them to their families and communities of origin?
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Possessions, Spoils of War, Belongings
Addressing colonial injustices by claiming restitution of artefacts and other belongings before German courts is undeniably a legal challenge for all stakeholders. As a shield against (potential) legal claims, museums, state authorities and some legal scholars have argued that there is no legal obligation for restitution of such belongings. Based on the stipulation that “colonial law has to be applied, even if it is no longer compatible with today’s views on law and justice”, this line of argument assumes that the acquisition of the possessions of colonized people by Europeans and subsequent transactions were generally considered lawful in the nineteenth century. In this contribution, we question this assumption.
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The Autonomy of Sport and the Degeneration of an Ideal
The Football World Cup in Qatar is but the tip of the iceberg of the mounting problems for UEFA/FIFA. Scandals. Corruption. Cozying up to the autocrats and feeling right at home in their company. Arrogance bordering on ignorance coming from the very top of the governing bodies. The list of serious ailments that beset the system of football governance goes on. As a result, one might argue that not much of substance can be added to the topic. Yet, as will be argued here, there is still a constitutional and discursive potential to push forward the discourse on the broken system of football governance. There is important space for constitutionalists to fill by offering a voice of critical reflection, insights and by pointing out signposts for the future.
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The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
The Commission needs to get its message out to Hungarians loud and clear that it is trying to fight corruption in Hungary so that EU money can be used to benefit the Hungarian people and not just Orbán’s circle of cronies. Hungarians would definitely appreciate that if they knew it. But the Commission’s press release today has been drowned out by Orbán’s use of state funds to flood the zone with his message that the Commission doesn’t care about the Hungarian people and is responsible for all of the economic pain they feel.
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The Pitfalls of Enhanced Cooperation
There has been a public debate among academics and politicians on whether Hungary should be required to join the European Public Prosecutor’s Office as a condition to receive EU funds according to the different milestones. Joining the EPPO would send a clear message that Hungary takes ending public corruption seriously and a more general sign that it wishes to be a part of the European family. However, this proposal will not be legally possible to implement, thus illustrating the key problem with enhanced cooperation as a form of European integration.
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Conflating the Powers of the Commissarial and the Sovereign Dictator in Tunisia
On July 25, 2022, a year after Tunisian President Kais Saied declared a state of emergency and with only 28 percent of eligible voters participating, Tunisia ratified its new Constitution. Saied’s use of wide emergency powers to help sideline parliamentary opposition and support the constitution-making process, contradicts the underlying rational that emergency powers are needed in democratic states to defend the existing constitutional order against urgent and exceptional threats to the state. To preclude the potential misuse of emergency powers a state’s constitution should be designed to prevent the entity exercising emergency powers from simultaneously claiming that they represent the ‘broad popular will’ of the people.
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Judges as Guardians of Promises
On 16 November, the Minister for Equality accused the Spanish judiciary of being macho-ist: “macho-ism can compromise both the impartiality and the integrity of judicial systems; macho-ism may make judges apply the law erroneously and wrongly”, said the Minister. After much criticism, Podemos, in support of the Minister, rounded up her argument: “Spanish judges are fascists”. These comments are part of an intense battle that is being fought between the government (Psoe/Podemos) and the Spanish Popular Party regarding the renewal of the Spanish General Council for the Judiciary, the judges’ governing body.
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War, Schengen, and the Rule of Law
On 22 November 2022, the European Commission (EC) published its final report on Romania under the Cooperation and Verification Mechanism (CVM) and proposed the mechanism be terminated. While this is an early Christmas present to the ruling elite of Romania, it certainly isn’t one for the rule of law – neither in Romania nor the EU. It’s been nearly 16 years since the CVM was established at the accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the EU in January 2007. Setting and monitoring benchmarks, its aim is to support both countries in overcoming shortcomings relating to the rule of law, especially the independence of the judiciary and fight against corruption. While Bulgaria was considered to have successfully fulfilled all benchmarks by 2019 and the mechanism was lifted, the case is different for Romania.
Continue reading >>In Hungary, the Law Changes Every Day but It Doesn’t Get Better
The EU Commission has agreed with us that the laws that we have analyzed in our series of four blogposts did not in fact constitute an effective anti-corruption plan. And the Commission has attached a €13.3 billion price tag to non-compliance. Now the Hungarian government is scrambling to unlock this cash by introducing two additional laws that attempt to address the Commission’s concerns. But these new laws repeat the errors of the prior laws. They create the appearance of an independent corruption-fighting system while digging in political allies at all of the chokepoints and tying up whistleblowers and anti-corruption fighters in red tape. The new laws do not make things better and they may even make things worse.
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Inequality of Harms, Inequality of Arms
On November 8th 2022 Channa Samkalden, lawyer for Esther Kiobel and three other widows of executed Nigerian community leaders, announced that her clients would be ending their lawsuit against Shell. Uncertainty about the outcome, combined with the fact that the case had already been (unsuccessfully) going on for over 20 years in multiple fora, had made the four widows decide to withdraw the appeal, “not without disappointment and frustration”. In this blog, I discuss this case's remarkable procedural history and why it, set against the particular facts of the case, illustrates the fundamental procedural unfairness between large corporations and victims trying to hold them to account.
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Juristocracy Strikes Back
Once again, Brazil’s highest electoral court finds itself taking the spotlights in the international media for its incredibly fierce – and, admittedly, also controversial – involvement in the country’s elections. As an institution deeply committed to the defence of democracy and its electoral processes, it has gone to previously unimagined lengths to secure that political competition stays within high standards of freedom and fairness, even in face of the most effortful attempts of subverting the electoral game. The Court’s latest headline is no different.
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The High Stakes Israeli Debate over the Override
Following the 2022 elections to Israel’s legislature (Knesset), a hardcore right wing coalition is in the process of forming. Each of the potential partners in this coalition fantasizes about introducing an override clause into the Israeli constitutional system for different political motivations. However, the result would be the same. It would allow the Knesset to disproportionally infringe upon constitutional rights.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 2: Belarus
In the second episode of Defending the Defenders, we talk to Dmitri Laevski about the rule of law and human rights in Belarus. Dmitri is a criminal attorney turned human rights lawyer in the wake of the 2020 presidential elections. He takes us through the recent history of the rule of law in Belarus, from realising that the concept he learned about in university didn't really exist in practice to the organisation of the legal professions in the last decade to the rule of law crackdown in 2020 and ever since.
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Protecting Media Content on Social Media Platforms
On 16 September 2022 the European Commission released a proposal for a Regulation establishing a common framework for media services in the internal market, also known as the European Media Freedom Act. The proposal includes safeguards against political interference in editorial decisions, and includes a series of provisions targeting online services and establishing additional obligations and regulatory powers in this field.
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Scottish Independence on Hold
The UK Supreme Court has ruled that the Scottish Government does not have the power to call a new referendum on independence, blocking the SNP administration's apparent plans for a non-binding referendum in October next year. The ruling confirms the inability of Scotland's politics to resolve constitutional issues as it currently established. Politics will follow, but there is no clearer route to resolving the constitutional issues at play now than before the ruling.
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Wenn die KI “A” sagt und die Ärztin “B”
Die KI schlägt vor, der Mensch ‚entscheidet‘ und verantwortlich ist am Ende niemand? Die Annahme jedenfalls, dass, wenn die KI „A“ sagt, der KI-Nutzer als menschlicher Letztentschei-der im Einzelfall auch einmal für „B“ votiert, ist tendenziell unrealistisch und die KI entscheidet dann faktisch eben doch ‚autonom‘, ohne dass allerdings dahinter ein autonomes Subjekt stehen würde.
Continue reading >>Not Just an Enhanced Opinion Poll
The UK Supreme Court judgment provides a robust protection of reserved matters under the Scotland Act, despite its shortcomings. This will likely end the legal manoeuvring of the Scottish government towards a second referendum. Instead, the political process is back in the driving seat (as it needs to be) and it now appears more likely than ever that the SNP will contest the next general election on an entirely Scottish independence-based platform. The future of the Union and the UK Parliament remains legally and politically precarious.
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Trojan Horses and Constitutional Identity
In Costello v Ireland the Irish Supreme Court upheld a constitutional challenge by a Green Party MP to the Government’s proposed ratification of the CETA. By a majority of 4:3, the Court held that ratification would breach Irish juridical sovereignty. Beyond CETA, the greater significance of Costello may lie in its endorsement of constitutional identity as a doctrinal device that controls Ireland’s domestic legal engagement with its international law obligations. The new status accorded to constitutional identity, however, may provide future Irish courts with the doctrinal tools to recalibrate the relationship between the Irish and EU legal orders.
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Nein, Elon Musk, so geht Plattformdemokratie nicht
Nach einer Online-Abstimmung hat Elon Musk den Account von Donald Trump freigeschaltet: “The people have spoken. / Trump will be reinstated. / Vox Populi, Vox Dei”, schreibt er. Grundlage für die Entscheidung ware eine Online-Abstimmung mit 15 Millionen Teilnehmer*innen, die 51,8% zu 48,2% für eine Entsperrung ausgegangen ist. Doch so geht digitale Demokratie nicht, so geht Plattformregulierung nicht.
Continue reading >>The Reform That Isn’t
As states are set to vote on the reform of the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) at a Conference in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, on 22 November, concerns regarding the treaty's impact on states' climate policies remain significant. In our assessment, the proposed reform fails to provide the treaty’s contracting parties with the necessary regulatory freedom to implement their climate commitments. Scheduled for the week after COP27, the vote comes at a crucial time, as scientists agree that this is the decisive decade to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Meanwhile, several EU Member States, including Germany, France, Spain, Poland, the Netherlands, and Slovenia have announced unilateral withdrawals from the treaty, stating that the proposed reform fails to meet their expectations.
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The Terrible Plight of Internally Displaced Persons in Central Africa
In a never-ending humanitarian crisis, Central Africa is host to the largest community of internally displaced persons (IDPs). In early November, thousands of new IDPs, including a high number of children, found shelter in overcrowded and unsanitary camps in Goma and Lubero, in the North Kivu provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) fleeing violence in the area, caused by the intensifying fighting between the Congolese armed forces and non-state armed group M23. It is for this reason of permanent insecurity in the area that I argue that the adoption of a specific binding legal instrument could ease the management of the IDPs in the region. The adoption of such an instrument would find one of its foundations in the concept of “solidarity”.
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The Tangible and Imminent Threat to Israel’s Judicial Independence
A fierce debate is raging these days about the democratic implications of the Israeli 2022 elections to the twenty-fifth Knesset (legislature). Yet, those who read the platform of the Religious Zionist Party—as expressed in the program "Law and Justice-Reform of the Judicial System," signed by the members of the Knesset, Bezalel Smotrich and Simcha Rothman—cannot ignore the real and imminent danger to Israel’s judicial independence. The top item on their agenda, published during their election campaign, is changing the judicial appointment process.
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Trusting Hungary with Billions of Euros
It’s crunch time for the Conditionality Regulation at the European Commission. In its College meeting on 22 November, the Commission is scheduled to discuss whether Hungary has actually made the 17 changes it proposed in order to avoid cuts to its Cohesion Funds. What the Commission chooses to do will depend on whether it believes that Hungary’s anti-corruption program will in fact allow Hungary to be entrusted with billions of Euros without having a sizeable fraction of those Euros pocketed by cronies. We believe that Hungary’s reforms are designed to be ineffective and will not even begin to halt the massive corruption that is the hallmark of Hungary’s kleptocracy.
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Picking Primacy over Procedural Autonomy
On 8 November, the Grand Chamber of the Court of Justice of the European Union (‘the Court’) decided that national courts are required to ascertain of their own motion whether detention of an illegally staying foreign national or asylum seeker is lawful. This judgment is an example of the ever-growing impact of EU law on national procedural rules, especially in the migration law area. The judgment is also noteworthy because of the difference in approach between, on the one hand, the Court and, on the other hand, the Dutch referring courts and AG Richard de la Tour.
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Nature Restoration and Fundamental Rights
This year’s most heated topic of constitutional contestation in Finland is likely to be the Commission’s recent proposal for nature restoration. While nature restoration has an innocent sound, the matter actually involves a broad spectrum of constitutional issues. In this debate, political undesirability has turned into claims about the EU’s lacking competence in regulating forests and a general failure to respect the principle of subsidiarity. Last Friday the Finnish Parliament’s Constitutional Law Committee approved an interesting statement of principle, which is likely to affect the country’s stance on EU (fiscal) integration far beyond the question of nature restoration.
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Extradition and the Regrettable Influence of Politics upon Law
Amongst the ECtHR jurisprudence giving rise to political disgruntlement in the United Kingdom have been judgments on extradition and deportation. Attempts to remove individuals from the UK through one of these avenues have occasionally been frustrated on human rights grounds. In the context of the UK government’s ill-disguised hostility to human rights the Grand Chamber on 3 November issued Sanchez-Sanchez v. UK (App.no. 22854/20). The case considered the application of article 3 of the ECHR prohibiting torture and inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment where an accused drug trafficker was sought by way of extradition by the United States where he faced the possibility of an irreducible life sentence of imprisonment.
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Seven Months in the Freezing Forest
On 10 November 2022, Latvia extended the emergency situation at its border with Belarus for a further three months – now until February 2023. Introduced in August 2021 in response to the perceived ‘hybrid attack’ organised by Minsk, the state of emergency has since been renewed five times, effectively becoming a permanent condition. In practical terms that means that Latvia will continue carrying out systematic pushbacks – despite the very low number of border crossing attempts and allegations of gross violations of human rights.
Continue reading >>Teaching Law in Times of Overlapping Crises
For decades, we – legal scholars and teachers – have helped weaken the law by presenting it as ‘lagging behind’, as a feeble and inept tool of government, transferring thus much of its normative power into the hands of the most powerful market actors. We can, and have to, change this.
Continue reading >>The post-Brexit Breakdown of the Rule of Law in the UK
The sad reality is that Brexit has contributed to an emerging breakdown of the Rule of Law in the United Kingdom. The famous slogan: ‘Take Back Control’ left open what a post-Brexit society should become. As a result, of course, what Brexit meant had to be worked out after the referendum, and here is where the tensions with the Rule of Law began in earnest, because ‘taking back control’ became, in effect, the only principle and anything that stood in the way of achieving that result was to be sacrificed, including the Rule of Law.
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Are Hungary’s EU Funds Being Cut (or Not)?
The news about whether Hungary will receive EU funds (or not) these days is confusing. One day, we hear that the European Commission is proposing to lower the boom on Hungary by cutting a large chunk of its Cohesion Funds under the general EU budget. The next day, we hear that the Commission is nearing an agreement to approve Hungary’s Recovery Plan in order to greenlight the release of funds. Is the Commission using or surrendering its financial leverage to require that the Hungarian government honor the rule of law? Will the Hungarian government negotiate its way out of funding cuts by really loosening its autocratic grip on power, or would any reform be illusory?
Continue reading >>Petrified Constitutions
The crisis of US democracy is also a constitutional crisis. Many provisions of the most time-honoured of all constitutions now appear to be outdated and in urgent need of reform. However, no substantial reform of the US constitution is to be expected. The US constitution makes its change dependent on excessively high hurdles. The historical US model, which shaped constitutional development in Europe like no other, should be a warning to the European Union in particular. Dangers of petrification can also be clearly seen in the EU constitutional order.
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#DefendingTheDefenders – Episode 1: Poland
We Need to Talk About the Rule of Law is back for a second season that focuses on the impact of rule of law erosions on attorneys. In the first episode, we talk to MIKOŁAJ PIETRZAK. He is an attorney and the Dean of the Warsaw Bar Association, which is the oldest professional legal association in Poland and the administrative association of attorneys in Warsaw.
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The Penultimate Chapter in the Case of Julian Assange
After almost four years under unchanged detention conditions in the high-security prison Belmarsh, Julian Assange is facing yet another challenge. The upcoming decision of the High Court of England and Wales might ultimately determine whether Julian Assange can be extradited to the United States where he would face up to 175 years in prison if convicted on all 18 charges. If the High Court concludes that the first-instance proceedings should not be reopened, legal recourse in the United Kingdom would be exhausted. Many voices are therefore pinning their hopes on the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR).
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Twitter Complaint Hotline Operator
Elon Musk, Twitter’s conspicuous new owner, famously spoke out against Trump's deplatforming, raising concerns that he could undo it upon gaining control of the social media platform. Mr. Musk was quick to dispel these fears. He first reassured advertisers that he has no plans to relax content moderation standards. In addition, he announced that the reactivation of banned accounts is s Anyone feeling a sense of déjà vu?
Continue reading >>Meloni’s Illiberal Anti-Rave Law
Only ten days after it was sworn in and a week after it received the confidence vote from the Parliament, the new Italian government led by Giorgia Meloni presented its first decree-law containing numerous provisions on a variety of issues: health, justice, and security. The decree-law was the first legislative act presented by the new radical right-wing government. Members of the opposition argued that the decree, in particular the anti-rave norm, is a danger to the freedom of assembly of the Italian citizens and that is a law that Putin could have written.
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Compensation for non-material damages under the GDPR
On 6 October 2022, Advocate General Campos Sánchez-Bordona delivered his Opinion in case C‑300/21. At stake is the interpretation of Article 82 of the General Data Protection Regulation, which provides compensation for non-material damages. The Opinion opts for a strict interpretation of this provision, but a broader reading is possible, and even desirable, in light of the GDPR’s objectives and the many barriers impeding effective enforcement of data protection rights.
Continue reading >>Will the DSA work?
The DSA has many components but, in its essence, it is a digital due process regulation bundled with risk-management tools. But will these tools work? My main concern about the DSA resides also in its strength – it relies on societal structures that the law can only foresee and incentivize but cannot build; only people can. These structures, such as local organisations analysing threats, consumer groups helping content creators, and communities of researchers, are the only ones to give life to the DSA’s tools.
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Why the DSA could save us from the rise of authoritarian regimes
The rise of extremist right-wing governments, as observed recently in Italy, is closely linked to the business models of large digital platforms such as Facebook and YouTube. Their algorithms polarise debates and stir up emotions because that enables them to keep people on their screens for longer and show them advertising. The European Union’s Digital Services Act is the framework to address this dangerous development.
Continue reading >>The DSA fails to reign in the most harmful digital platform businesses – but it is still useful
While the DSA has just been crafted carefully enough to avoid major damage to digital rights in the EU, it has focussed so much on who must delete what kind of content within which time frame, that it missed the bigger picture: no content moderation policy in the world will protect us from harmful online content as long as we do not address the dominant, yet incredibly damaging surveillance business model of most large tech firms.
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With or Without Hungary
By December 2022, the Council must vote on the Commission's proposal to withdraw EU budgetary funds from Hungary under the Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation. Without a legal basis for its exclusion, Hungary will cast its vote on that proposal. Obviously, the participation of a Member State in a vote that decides on the consequences of its own rule of law violations seems paradoxical. There should be a general Treaty rule that prevents a Member State from voting in the Council when their own alleged misconduct is at stake.
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If You Build It, They Will Come
Content moderation is not only an Internet governance problem; it is also, unavoidably, a form of de facto adjudication. When observed in detail, the “procedure before substance” approach of the DSA leaves many questions unanswered. The final text of the Regulation contains compromises and blind spots.
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Brazilian Presidential Elections Results
On the 30th of October 2022, Brazilian citizens typed the electronic ballots to choose the president for the next four years' term in the runoff between Jair Bolsonaro and Luís Inácio Lula da Silva. The very close results mirrored the radical polarization that has been haunting the country for at least the last ten years. Lula received 50.9% of the valid votes, whereas Bolsonaro was chosen by 49.1% of the electors. At the time of this writing, Bolsonaro has not conceded.
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Regressive, Sexist, and Unconstitutional
On 31 October 2022, a two judge bench of the Indian Supreme Court delivered a crucial order, reiterating its ban on the so called “two finger test”. The continued usage of the test, the Court stated in State of Jharkhand v. Shailendra Kumar Rai, is professional misconduct. To enforce the ban of this practice against survivors of sexual violence the bench issued a slew of directions. In this post, I discuss the impact of this order on the constitutional rights of survivors of sexual violence. While the Court’s judgment is a progressive one, it might not have the desired effect, namely the complete ban on the conduct of the ‘two finger test’.
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Regulating influence, timidly
The DSA considers advertising and recommender systems as deserving of regulatory attention, and not immutable facets of an online world. But even as the regulation furthers current standards in disclosures around online advertising, it insulates advertising business models and consolidates platform efforts to sidestep the operative question that characterizes online advertising: how and why advertisements reach who they reach, in less abstract terms.
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Uniform Interpretation and Primacy of Union Law in the Dialogue of the Courts
The issue of uniform interpretation and primacy of Union law raises a fundamental question concerning the allocation and distribution of judicial power in the European Union. From the point of view of Union law practice, however, the discussion, which is now beginning with renewed vigor, seems strangely out of touch with the times. Without offering any solutions or "last words" in this debate, some remarks on the current EU treaty law and its interpretation are in order.
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Now What
The question of the DSA's enforcement has already been getting considerable attention, with one of the main concerns being that the resources put forth by the European Commission are too humble when compared to the DSA’s far-reaching goals. More concerningly, the DSA leaves loopholes and grey areas in respect to native advertising and the influencer economy.
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Remedying Overremoval
The DSA provides a whole set of notice and action mechanisms to address online harms. The codified mechanisms, together with detailed procedures, are foreseen for content that is illegal but also for content incompatible with platforms’ terms and conditions. But the DSA has also another goal, to ensure that the new rules respect fundamental human rights. While definitely a good step towards more effective protection of users’ rights, the true effect of the provided remedies will depend on their practical implementation. Some elements of the new regime may be a bold experiment the result of which is not fully predictable.
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Contextualisation over Replication
The EU is notorious for using regulatory solutions like the DSA to dominate and pre-empt global digital standards. Often, the major conversations on the international impacts of EU laws have oscillated between capture and actually providing normative leadership on thorny aspects of digital regulation. African countries should develop their own content regulation rules by paying more attention to their contexts and consider aspects of the DSA only where they will improve such local rules.
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The DSA as a paradigm shift for online intermediaries’ due diligence
The DSA adopts a meta-regulatory approach. While the shift to a meta-regulatory model should be welcomed for enabling reflexive and adaptive regulation, we must also be weary of its risk of collapsing in the absence of well-resourced and independent institutions. Indeed, this risk affects the extent to which the exportation of the DSA outside Europe would be in the public interest.
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Foreign Agents, Diplomatic Skirmishes and the Law on Diplomatic and Consular Relations
In September 2022, the Madrid-based NGO ‘Safeguard Defenders’ published a report entitled ‘110 Overseas – Chinese Transnational Policing Gone Wild’, in which it documented the existence of at least 54 extraterritorial and undeclared Chinese police stations in more than 30 countries, many of them European Union Member States, such as Germany, Ireland, or the Netherlands. These police facilities, operated under the guise of ‘service centres’ supposedly providing diplomatic and consular services such as extending driving licences for Chinese nationals, have hence been located in cities such as Dublin, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and Frankfurt.
Continue reading >>Between preservation and clarification
When assessing the liability rules in the DSA it is evident that the its emphasis has been on preservation of the E-Commerce Directive's rules. However, that does not mean that nothing at all has changed. In fact, a closer look reveals that in some respects a notable evolution has taken place.
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An Intersectional Lens on Online Gender Based Violence and the Digital Services Act
The EU’s Digital Services Act introduces novel mandatory due diligence obligations for online platforms to address potential societal risks posed by the provision of their services - including the risk of online gender based violence. If effectively implemented, these provisions have the potential to set important standards for tackling some of the most pervasive harms of the digital ecosystem. However, these efforts will require the adoption of an intersectional methodology, otherwise they will simply fail to provide the necessary mechanisms for those most acutely impacted by these rights violations.
Continue reading >>The Swedish Change of Government
With the current turbulences of British politics, Sweden may come across as a quiet Nordic country where not much is happening. Surprisingly little has been written about the Swedish elections from a legal perspective. On September 11, 2022, Swedes voted for a center-rightwing coalition with support from the far right. The purpose of this blog post is to discuss whether the Swedish election is as dangerous as it has been portrayed or if it (simultaneously) represents a mainstreaming of Swedish laws with some of the EU legal framework and is perhaps likely to activate Swedish courts to refer to EU courts more often.
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Fundamental rights impact assessments in the DSA
The attention to fundamental rights in the new wave of EU digital regulation, confirmed in the Digital Services Act, is a significant step towards a more articulated and appropriate framework for protecting people in a context characterised by pervasive technologies that are often developed without adequate consideration of their impact on society. However, existing practices in human rights impact assessment show some limitations in being extended to the digital context.
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A Chamber of Certain Liability
The establishment of the Chamber of Professional Liability is the latest installment in the saga, in which the Polish Law & Justice government tries to ‘reform’ the Supreme Court. It shows, in a nutshell, all the major issues of the rule of law crisis in Poland: conflict with the European Commission and loss of EU funds; apparent concessions and leaving old issues intact; split in the Polish legal community between lawful and unlawful judges. All the elements of drama are here and it all begins with the Disciplinary Chamber of the Supreme Court.
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Hungary’s Shambolic Anticorruption Proposals
The Article Useless and Maybe Unconstitutional: Hungary’s Proposed Judicial Review of the Prosecutorial Decisions by Kim Lane Scheppele, Petra Bárd and Gábor Mészáros gives a detailed account of the proposed legislation on amending the Hungarian Criminal Procedure Code. The conclusions of the article are correct and most of the criticism is accurate. Yet the article misses some real weaknesses of the Hungarian government’s proposal. This article aims to point out these weaknesses from the viewpoint of a practicing Hungarian criminal lawyer.
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Platform oversight
The Digital Services Act requires EU member states to name a “Digital Services Coordinator” (DSC) to coordinate national regulators involved in platform oversight. But the DSCs are more than just “coordinators,” as they have to fulfill specific oversight tasks themselves. That is why member states should resist the temptation to build a small-scale coordinator and instead build a strong DSC with skills in data analysis, community management and flexible case-based work.
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A Regulator Caught Between Conflicting Policy Objectives
The Digital Services Act has landed on an increased centralization of its enforcement powers in the hands of the European Commission. The rationale behind this centralized enforcement is understandable, particularly in light of the experience with GDPR enforcement. At the same time, it raises crucial questions about the future recurrence of such centralizaion in the Commission's hands, and the separation of powers more broadly.
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The DSA has been published – now the difficult bit begins
The Digital Services Act (DSA) has finally been published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 27 October 2022. This publication marks the end of a years-long drafting and negotiation process, and opens a new chapter: that of its enforcement, practicable access to justice, and potential to set global precedents.
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Trunks, Grass, Creepers
Why the AfD must not get its foundation funded
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Stämme, Gräser, Schlingpflanzen
Warum die AfD kein Geld für ihre Stiftung kriegen darf
Continue reading >>Fakeness in Political Popularity
Politics in a democratic society have long been a glorified popularity contest, which we can all hope the most capable person wins. Hence, politicians have an incentive to artificially boost their online popularity through fakeness – fake comments, fake followers, fake likes. On a fundamental level, a false sense of popularity may affect our election outcomes – so what are the legal limits of fakeness?
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Unexploited Monitoring Opportunities
Over the last year and a half, the European Border Coast Guard Agency has been under an unprecedented scrutiny. The Frontex saga started in 2020 when investigative journalists published ground-breaking findings, revealing how the Agency was breaching the law being complicit with human rights violations committed by Greek authorities. National Parliaments could play a bigger role in monitoring Frontex, serving as a complementary avenue for democratic oversight, in addition to the European Parliament.
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Mehr Parlament in der Außenpolitik und mehr Außenpolitik im Parlament
Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat gestern der (Nicht-)Informationspraxis der Bundesregierung gegenüber dem Bundestag in außen- und sicherheitspolitischen Angelegenheiten der Europäischen Union eine klare Absage erteilt. Diese hatte die Bundesregierung bislang grundsätzlich nicht als Anwendungsfall des parlamentarischen Informations-, Dokumententeilhabe- und Mitwirkungsrechts nach Art. 23 Abs. 2 und Abs. 3 GG anerkannt – eine Rechtsauffassung, die einer konstitutionell überholten, letztlich vordemokratischen Idee einer exekutiven Alleinherrschaft über die äußeren, insbesondere militärischen Angelegenheiten verhaftet ist. Das nun ergangene Urteil erfordert von der Bundesregierung eine Kehrtwende, rückt aber auch die Verfassungsentwicklung auf dem Gebiet der parlamentarischen Mitwirkung an der auswärtigen Gewalt generell in den Blick.
Continue reading >>Fighting for a Cause
On 18 October 2022, the European Court of Human Rights handed down its judgement in the case of Mørck Jensen v. Denmark, upholding the applicant’s conviction under Danish law of breaching the prohibition on entry into and stay in a conflict zone in order to participate in armed hostilities on the side of one party to an ongoing armed conflict. In its judgment, the Court consciously opted to take an objective or neutral stance towards the question of whether there may exist ‘right’ reasons to travel to a hot conflict zone in order to actively participate in armed activities.
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Normative Power Through Protest
On September 16, 2022, Mahsa Amini died in state custody. Since then “a barrier of fear has been broken” in Iran: in the streets of Tehran and other cities in the world, people demonstrate against state-religious heteronomy. How does international law relate to what is happening in Iran and what role could it have? In our view, the assessment of a breach of international law can be both an important contribution for the course of the ongoing protests as well as for the effectiveness of international law itself.
Continue reading >>A Defining Moment for the UN Business and Human Rights Treaty Process
The ongoing process to negotiate a UN treaty on business and human rights has its 8th annual session this week in Geneva. Though embraced by many NGOs, this initiative has so far failed to secure widespread support amongst states with wide divergences remaining regarding the proposed instrument’s objectives and design, as well as its relationship to the UN 2011 Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, an earlier soft law instrument championed by governments, businesses and international actors. Yet there may be light on the horizon.
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Useless and Maybe Unconstitutional
In part III of our analysis of the anti-corruption framework, we will look at another aspect of the Hungarian “reforms”: a new procedure that seems to allow the general public to challenge in court the decisions of Hungarian public prosecutors to drop corruption cases. The new procedure is nearly impossible to use and adds little value to existing controls on the public prosecutor. In addition, the Hungarian Constitutional Court may declare it unconstitutional in any event.
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Britain’s Political Meltdown and its Constitutional Dimension
Britain’s political meltdown is also a constitutional meltdown – a sign of the increasing redundancy of a remarkably resilient and successful constitutional model that has seen the UK avoid the constant process of revolution and renewal that plagued other European states, at least in the 20th century. The current state of the UK’s constitutional system is unsustainable and increasingly unable to support the primary purpose of government – to actually deliver policy.
Continue reading >>Die Konservative Partei
Liz, Boris und eine Schildkröte namens Archie
Continue reading >>Why a United States Supreme Court Case About Pig Farming Matters So Much
The United States Supreme Court is currently considering a case that could have major implications for animal welfare, public health, the environment, and the balance between state and federal power. The case is called National Pork Producers Council v. Ross, and the Court heard oral arguments on October 11, 2022. The case concerns whether a state has the right to ban the sale of products made in ways that harm animals and public health.
Continue reading >>Playing Hide-and-seek with UK’s Parliamentary Supremacy
The ambiguous status of ‘retained EU law’ – this new category of domestic law consisting of the EU law applicable in the United Kingdom until 31 December 2020 – led the UK government to draft the Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Bill, known also as the Brexit Freedoms Bill (‘the Bill’), with the promise to align retained EU law with ‘the UK’s priorities for unlocking growth’. It is the most recent effort of the government to achieve what it has not achieved so far: to scrap the supremacy of EU law once and for all or, to put it differently, to restore the supremacy of the UK Parliament. However, rather than restoring, the government’s legislative proposal threatens the fundamental principle of the UK’s constitution.
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Christian Schmidt’s Stabilitocracy
The High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina Christian Schmidt has imposed amendments to the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Election Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina. By this decision, Schmidt questioned the role of the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina – should Bosnia and Herzegovina be a democratic state or a state of ‘ethnic stabilitocracy’? Schmidt showed us that ‘ethnic stabilitocracy’ is the current aim of the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Continue reading >>Towards a data-subject-friendly interpretation of Article 82 GDPR
Under the GDPR, Article 82 is the only instrument to claim compensation resulting from data protection infringements. So far, it has not been interpreted by the CJEU. To date, nine preliminary references on the interpretation of Article 82 have been made by national courts. On 6 October 2022, Advocate General Sánchez-Bordona delivered his Opinion in one of them. Since it will be the first CJEU judgment on this subject, it will have a profound impact on the further development of EU data protection law, in particular, its private enforcement.
Continue reading >>Silenced, Chilled, and Jailed
As Turkey is in the process of getting ready for the general and presidential elections of June 2023, a recent legal reform has created much concern regarding freedom of expression and increased threat of online censorship in the country. Citizens have called the amendment a ‘censorship law’, while some prominent civil society organizations have voiced their concern about the law creating avenues for a dystopian crackdown when the elections are just around the corner.
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Sex, God, and Blasphemy
Blasphemy used to be a grave offence once. Now, it is on the decline, making room for freedom of expression. Yet, two judgments of last week show that blasphemy has managed to re-enter the stage through the back door. In this blogpost, I argue that although both cases ended well, i.e. were decided in favour of freedom of expression of artists and activists, both courts erred in their assessment of the role of religion and religious sentiment in European secular democracies.
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Digital Autonomy in Contractual Relationships
It is rare for two Advocates General of the European Court of Justice to differ on the interpretation of a fundamental legal act of the European Union. This is what recently occurred with regard to the General Data Protection Regulation.
Continue reading >>A Chernobyl Case for our Times
On 10 October 2022, René Repasi, a member of the European Parliament, brought a case against the European Commission before the EU General Court. The key question of the case is procedural: Does an individual MEP have standing to claim before the Court that an EU act has been based on the wrong legal basis, if the choice of legal basis affects an MEP’s participatory rights. If Mr. Repasi succeeds, his case could significantly strengthen the Court’s role in protecting the rights of the minority in the European Parliament. It could introduce a new type of player to EU institutional legal battles – the MEP – and establish a sort of Organstreitverfahren for individual MEPs.
Continue reading >>Is Taiwan a State?
Taiwan just celebrated its national day on 10 October 2022. In her speech, President Tsai Ing-wen traced the Republic of China’s resettling in Taiwan in 1949, to its democratization in the 1980s and 1990s, the latter of which transformed it into the Republic of China (Taiwan). Tsai also cautioned the People’s Republic of Chinas (the PRC) “attempts to erase the sovereignty of the Republic of China (Taiwan) have threatened the status quo of peace and stability in the Taiwan Strait and the region.” In contrast, in its “White Paper on Taiwan Question and the Unification of China in a New Era,” the PRC reiterated its longstanding position that Taiwan is an inalienable part of China, and cited United Nations (UN) Resolution 2758 to advance its so-called “One China Principle” internationally.
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Repasi vs Plaumann
On 10 October 2022 MEP René Repasi lodged an action for annulment against the complementary taxonomy delegated regulation 2022/1214. The same regulation is also challenged by Austria, a privileged applicant under Article 263 TFEU. This post focuses on the issue which MEP Repasi himself has noted is the most innovative of his action, namely the question whether an individual MEP has special legal standing to challenge an act (of the Commission) that affects how that MEP fulfils his parliamentary function.
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Three misconceptions about the EU rule of law crisis
There are three major academic and political misconceptions concerning the EU rule of law crisis. The first mistake is already in the denomination, as the name ‘rule of law crisis’ is actually misleading, the second is to believe that ‘the EU does not have the necessary legal tools’, and the third is to conceive it as a ‘crisis only in the Member States affected’. These misconceptions make the crisis look narrower and less threatening than what it actually is, while also offering excuses for inaction.
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There Shall Be No Censorship
From Congo via Kassel and Hamburg to Indonesia
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Eine Zensur findet nicht statt
Vom Kongo über Kassel und Hamburg nach Indonesien
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A Second Scottish Independence Referendum in the UK Supreme Court
On October 11 and 12 an important case was argued in the UK Supreme Court over whether the Scottish Parliament has the competence to enact an independence referendum Bill. The Lord Advocate, Dorothy Bain KC, the principle Law Officer for the Scottish Government, brought a reference to the Supreme Court under the Scotland Act 1998 Schedule 6 paragraph 34. Even though the prospects for the case are unencouraging, an independence referendum is only one limb of the Scottish Government’s planned strategy for independence.
Continue reading >>The Mar Menor Lagoon Enjoys Legal Standing: and now, what?
On 30th September, the Spanish Parliament has completed the ‘Mar Menor Act’, granting legal personality to the lagoon of the Mar Menor and its basin. It is the first legal text in Europe which gives rights and legal standing to a natural body. Notably, the process was initiated by a public campaign triggering the legislative procedure. As legal scholars, we fear that this move, although it constitutes a strong expression of ecological awareness, will not solve the lagoon’s serious environmental deterioration.
Continue reading >>Waiting for Godot
The words of the President of the European Commission during her keynote speech at Princeton University on 22 September have caused quite a stir. Responding to a question about the (then) upcoming elections and the prospect of a right-wing government comprising members related to Putin, Ursula von der Leyen (VDL) surprised everyone with a reference to the well-known situations in Hungary and Poland. Now that the formation of a new Italian government is well underway, this contribution reconsiders the fears fueled by VDL’s statements in light of the past and current context to draw some more general conclusions on the institution’s duty to respect and promote the EU’s founding values.
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‘You are not alone’
For those who read last week’s news in constitutional justice, it would have been easy to miss the Fifth Congress of the World Conference on Constitutional Justice (WCCJ) on the theme ‘Constitutional Justice and Peace’ that was organized in Indonesia five years after the previous edition held in Lithuania. While featured on the Venice Commission’s website, the Congress was no prominent news in constitutionalist platforms, despite bringing together judges from 94 countries, many of whom are prominent academics in their respective jurisdictions, or even internationally. As this congress shows, constitutional courts can engage with academics, and are well positioned to do so, given they often contain judges with academic careers and experience. Such engagement might empower both institutions to respond to global autocratization more effectively.
Continue reading >>The Cardinal vs. the Theater
On 11 October 2022, the Czech Constitutional Court published its eagerly-awaited judgment resolving the conflict between religious belief and freedom of artistic expression. The case was initiated by a constitutional complaint of the head of the Czech Roman Catholic Church, Archbishop of Prague, Cardinal Dominik Duka. The complainants alleged that a theater‘s allegorical plays which mocked the catholic church and their belief were blasphemous and violated their constitutional rights, in particular a freedom of religion.
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Corrupting the Anti-Corruption Program
In this blogpost, we’ll analyze the Anti-Corruption Task Force, sometimes translated as the Anti-Corruption Working Group. This is another institutional innovation that the Hungarian government proposes to establish in order to transform a kleptocracy into an accountable government. Like the Integrity Authority, the Anti-Corruption Task Force also looks like it might be a good idea on first glance but its significance dissolves on closer analysis. The Task Force is structured like hens trying to organize a safety plan when the local foxes have packed the meeting and dominate the discussion.
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Evolution and Mutation in the EU’s DNA
In order to get rid of “classical” border controls between Member States, the EU Commission is trying to incentivise Schengen States to substitute them with so called “alternative measures”, for example the enforced use of police powers and monitoring and surveillance technologies. These technologies and their impacts confront us with the question what it means to move “freely” within an area of freedom, security and justice without internal frontiers.
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Digitale Autonomie in Vertragsbeziehungen
Es kommt selten vor, dass zwischen zwei Generalanwälten des Europäischen Gerichtshofs bei der Interpretation eines grundlegenden Rechtsakts der Europäischen Union grundsätzliche Deutungsunterschiede aufbrechen. Dies ist dieser Tage hinsichtlich der Datenschutz-Grundverordnung geschehen.
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Letting Human Rights Wait in Syrian Camps
Recently, the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights handed down its decision about the repatriation of Daesh-involved family members of French citizens. The judgment has been widely commented on in the French and international press. The overall impression that emerged was that of a victory for the applicants and a clear denunciation of French policy regarding the general non-repatriation of French children and their mothers encamped in north-eastern Syria. Reality is, however, very different. In fact, the Court’s decision is very measured. In many respects, it does (too) little and comes (too) late.
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“Woman. Life. Freedom” and the Fate of Iran’s Constitutional Order
Streets of Tehran and other cities from Kurdistan to Zahedan are the scenes of unprecedented protests in the history of the Islamic Republic of Iran for its fourth consecutive week. The protests initially erupted when Mahsa (Zhina) Amini, a 22-year-old woman who was arrested by Morality Police in Tehran for what the government alleged to be improper hijab, shortly died in police custody. Her death was the latest and most tragic story of countless women whose bodies are policed and are subject to the state’s ideological homogenization on a daily basis.
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IOC adds Human Rights Punch to the Lex Olympica
On 9 September 2022, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) published its long-awaited “Strategic Framework on Human Rights”. The new Framework presents an overarching approach as well as concrete action plans for the IOC to address their human rights risks. This blogpost highlights both the potential of the Framework to change the way the IOC operates and the Olympics are organised and the many unknowns remaining regarding its actual transformative impact and concrete implementation in practice.
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From Marginalization to Reproductive Justice
On 29th September 2022, a three-judge bench of the Indian Supreme Court passed its final order in a petition concerning the right to abortion for unmarried women. In a major progress for reproductive justice in India, the court decided in favour of unmarried women and recognized their equal right to access abortion. If followed, this judgment can potentially expand the wider access to sexual and reproductive health services for a range of groups. This marks a clear divide from previous approaches of the Supreme Court towards sexual and reproductive health.
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VerfassungsPod #3: Verfassung im Krieg
Es herrscht wieder Krieg in Europa. Umso wichtiger ist es deshalb, sich genauer mit unserer Verfassung, bzw. der Wehrverfassung zu beschäftigen. Mit zahlreichen Expert*innen haben wir wieder gesprochen und die Entwicklung der Wehrverfassung, aber auch deren Defizite genauer unter die Lupe genommen. Das Ergebnis präsentieren wir Ihnen in dieser Podcast-Reihe.
Continue reading >>Cutting the Gordian Knot in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Just after the polling stations on October 2, 2022, in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) had closed, High Representative Christian Schmidt dropped a bombshell when he imposed changes to the Election Law of BiH as well as 21 amendments to the Constitution of the Federation of BiH. It was the second decision of the High Representative regarding this year’s elections in BiH. Their recent impact to change the BiH Election Law on the evening of the elections as well as constitutional amendments raises the question of the sustainability of this complex post-conflict arrangement in BiH. Was the quick fix by the High Representative necessary, useful and justified?
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How to Prevent Blockage of Judicial Appointments
Deadlock is a familiar phenomenon when it comes to the election of constitutional court or other apex court members. Currently, several appointments for the Spanish Constitutional Tribunal, inter alia, are blocked by a deadlocked General Council of the Judiciary. In many jurisdictions, rules are in place which aim to prevent at least some of these adversities. There is, however, a problem with these solutions.
Continue reading >>How NOT to Be an Independent Agency
The Hungarian government is trying to convince EU institutions that it is taking adequate steps to ensure proper spending of EU funds going forward. At the center of this effort is a new ‘Integrity Authority’. The law establishing this authority, Bill T/1260, just passed the Hungarian Parliament on 3 October 2022. We have carefully read the laws enacted so far that establish a new anti-corruption framework and can confidently say that neither the Commission nor the Council should accept what the Hungarian government is offering because the proposed changes do not begin to alter business as usual in Hungary. In this blogpost, we will analyze the ‘Integrity Authority’ which forms the centerpiece of the government’s program, showing that it is not independent from the government nor are its powers real.
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Sham and Smokescreen
Since 27 April 2022, Hungary has been under the Rule of Law conditionality mechanism, introduced by the Conditionality Regulation. After various debates and considerations, and in the light of the blackmailing potential of the Hungarian prime minister, the Regulation, in a weaker form than initially proposed, works as a preventive tool for ensuring the protection of the EU budget and sound financial management of EU resources. The Hungarian government has a record of misleading (and betraying) the European Union, and apparently, it is not different now.
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Filtering fundamental rights
On platforms, the protection of fundamental rights is increasingly provided by algorithms. With the Digital Services Act (DSA) at the door, algorithms used for copyright protection were probably only the first step in regard to automated decision-making. Indeed, the DSA, conceived by the Union legislator as the new constitution of the Internet, presupposes the use of algorithmic filtering. Human pre-examination has become impossible due to the sheer amount of user-generated content. Filters are an effective moderation tool that is cost-effective compared to human review. But being fast is easier than being right: the usual method of applying European fundamental rights hangs heavily on the proportionality test, which at least at the current technological level escapes automation: fundamental rights cannot be filtered.
Continue reading >>Rising Before Sinking
On 22 September 2022, just one day before global climate protests took place in around 450 locations, the UN Human Rights Committee (Committee) has published its landmark decision in the case Daniel Billy et al. v. Australia. In casu, the Committee found that Australia failed to adequately protect members of an indigenous community present in four small, low-lying islands in the Torres Strait region from adverse impacts of climate change, which resulted in the violation of the complainants’ rights to enjoy their culture (Art. 27 ICPPR) and to be free from arbitrary interferences with their private life, family and home (Art. 17 ICCPR). The Committee thereby issued the first decision at the international level to tackle substantive human rights questions in the context of climate change that relate to the current situation of small islands and their indigenous inhabitants.
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The Wind Doesn’t Fall – it Drops
Excessiveness can be actually measured in many ways, but it is always time sensitive, and path dependent. As the Global financial crisis in 2008 has clearly demonstrated, excessive profits by banks in the first decade of the century were by far offset with the immense losses coming after, and the Governments were urged to grant subsidies and grants to the very same companies they overtaxed just some years before. The conclusion in this respect is that any judgment of excessiveness depends on the timespan considered. Both the Italian and the European legislator seem to have forgotten this aspect.
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Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger
Human rights courts can rarely avoid confrontation with backlashing states. This is particularly true for the two oldest and most prominent regional human rights courts, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). Yet, by close observation, we can witness that for both courts, backlash has triggered important institutional developments which will guide the work of human rights bodies in an increasingly polarized 21st century.
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Nicht mehr extrem
Eine Unterscheidung, die nichts mehr unterscheidet
Continue reading >>The ECtHR’s Coping Strategy
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) is operating in an increasingly challenging political and legal environment. Even if member states have stopped short of far-reaching reforms, they have signaled their collective desire for a more restrained Court, starting with the 2012 Brighton Declaration. Governments in established democracies, like the United Kingdom, have refused to implement or dragged-out implementation of ECtHR judgments. In some countries, government officials or major politicians have suggested exiting the Court’s jurisdiction altogether. Finally, several member states have rolled back domestic rights protections for politically unpopular groups, such as criminal defendants, suspected terrorists, asylum seekers, and non-traditional families.
Continue reading >>The Overreaching Court
In the United States, it does not appear to be the case that the apex judiciary faces truly significant attacks on its autonomy, whatever the expressed unhappiness of an increasing number of critics. At least some would argue that the problem is precisely the opposite, that the Supreme Court has a smug sense of its own autonomy and is willing to use it with reckless indifference to the consequences for the American polity overall.
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What’s Next, Bro?
On September 25th, nearly 51 million Italians were called to the polls to elect the 19th Parliament of the Republic since 1948. All domestic and international media focused their attention on the two main novelties of this election: a landslide victory by a post-fascist, nationalistic, anti-European right-wing party and the paradox of the first female Prime Minister advocating a hyper-conservative view of women in society. Politically, these are no doubt major news. At the same time, Mrs. Meloni and her government-to-be is an unwritten piece of paper.
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The Visa Ban, Nikolai and his Russian Sister
The absence of an EU-level decision to bar perceived Russians ‘tourists’ from visiting the EU, however, did not prevent several Member States from adopting such measures at the national level, departing from EU law provisions currently in force. Contrary to the ‘tourist -only’ narrative, however, the new rules severely affect Russian family members of EU citizens and residents – an issue that, so far, has escaped public attention.
Continue reading >>Lessons from the United Kingdom’s “Enemies of the People” case
It is difficult to deny evidence of a potential backlash against the judiciary in the UK. Both Miller decisions sent shockwaves through the United Kingdom. This is despite both decisions having the effect of protecting the powers of Parliament rather than the courts, and both having a marginal, if any, impact on the ability of the UK government to achieve its desired Brexit outcome. It is hard to forget the ‘Enemies of the People’ headline following the first Miller decision.
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Attack or Reform – Mária Kolíková’s legacy
Judicial reforms are always a sensitive topic. Judicial independence is a fundamental principle of liberal democracy and the rule of law. It is often treated like a golden calf, and this worship falls into a ritual. Therefore any interference with the judiciary by the executive or legislative power always raises attention. However, what distinguishes reform from an attack? Part II of this article on the Slovak judicial reform compare latest interventions in the judiciary to other reforms in Visegrad countries.
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Globalization on the Right
When Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro visited Hungary in Februar 2022, he was not only strenghtening political ties to his ideological “brother” Victor Orban, who had already attended Bolsonaro’s inauguration in 2018. Bolsonaro’s visit also put a spotlight on the transregional circulation of illiberal legal ideas. Over the past decade, conservative, religious and right-wing movements, activists and governments have built transnational networks in which they exchange legal ideas, forge common litigation strategies, and organize mutual intellectual and financial support. This posts addresses the role of Brazil and Bolsonarism in these networks, and it points to some consequences for the wider research agenda of comparative constitutional law.
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Consensus and the Crown
The late Queen was loved by many of those who felt no allegiance to her, and respected by many who did not love her. By contrast, prior to his accession, the new King had struggled to be respected, let alone loved. Will his Canadian subjects maintain their allegiance to him? The question, however inevitable, is largely idle in light of the political difficulties that any attempt to secure constitutional change in Canada has encountered for 30 years. The monarchy will remain, by default if not by desire, just as King Charles III rather than his more popular son succeeded regardless of his subjects’ feelings on the matter.
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The Resistance-Deference Paradox
The Turkish Constitutional Court demonstrates the resistance-deference paradox as a pattern in its judicial behavior under autocratic pressure. The docket management strategies including prioritization and late responsiveness are also employed in politically sensitive cases. The deferring stances of the Court legitimize autocratization when core issues of the regime are at stake. In these cases, the Court develops an autocratic partnership that makes itself an unreliable actor without any commitment to judicial ethos. The resistant stances of the Court trigger the political backlash and clashes with the judiciary, leading to further contestation of political autocratization.
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Mária Kolíková is leaving
A few weeks ago in Slovakia, after the last step of the reforms of the judiciary structure and the separation of powers was achieved, the coalition crisis broke out in full scope. Furthermore, after a two months long ultimatum, the liberals left the coalition. This step also meant the resignation of the Justice Minister, who was responsible for the judicial reform over the last two years. Now is the right time to summarize how Justice Minister Mária Kolíková succeeded in her efforts to reform the judiciary. This is part I of a two part article on the Slovak reform of the judiciary.
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The Shadow of the Past, the Challenges of the Future
The outcome of Italy's election has caused worried reactions and general alarm both across Italy and internationally. It is the first time since the dark days of fascism that a right-wing party has won the general election and will likely head the government. It is undoubtedly a turning point in Italian politics and history, a radical shift in the political spectrum. Is Italy’s constitutional system resilient enough to deal with the post-fascist legacy of Brothers of Italy? Is Italian democracy in danger? Three days after the elections we have to be cautious with any such predictions, but I think some preliminary answers are possible already at this early stage.
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No Institutional Upheaval in Sight in Italy
Will the new right-wing government in Italy under Giorgia Meloni attack the constitutional institutions? The program of the coalition and the numbers in Parliament both make that seem rather unlikely.
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Defending the Judiciary
The strategies of judicial resistance employed by the Polish judiciary after 2015 are diverse and complementary. They respond to changing and intensifying the pressure of political power on the judiciary. They are a consequence of the judgments of the CJEU and the ECHR concerning the administration of justice in Poland.
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Of Punks and Nerds
The 1970s and 80s brought about two new social archetypes – the punk and the nerd. While the anti-establishment punk wants to trash the (economic, political, social) system, wants to provoke and get attention for the sake of it, the nerd behaves rather inconspicuously but effectively. He might be socially awkward and overlooked at first, but skilled and smart as he is, he knows the rules of the game and the mechanisms to get ahead with his plans. When looking at different authoritarian leaders in the world today, these two archetypes come to mind. In this blogpost, I want to use these two archetype of authoritarian leaders to analyse their behaviour and sketch the contours of an analytical framework to compare and distinguish between them.
Continue reading >>Defective Judicial Appointments in Hungary
In recent years, a series of irregularities have been revealed in relation to judicial appointments in Hungary which have compromised judicial independence and raised serious rule of law concerns. These problems have been highlighted by various domestic and international stakeholders, and issues in the judiciary have become a core chapter in negotiations between Hungary and the EU within the framework of several rule of law mechanisms. The latest round of debates revolves around judicial appointments made by Chief Justice Varga to the Supreme Court which again raise the problem of institutional manipulation of the rules safeguarding the independence of the judiciary.
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Bolsonaro and Transitional Justice
Even 30 years after the 1988 Constitution, the most democratic one in Brazilian history, the legacies of the military dictatorship still linger on - a fact that has been made amply evident by Bolsonaro's policies and discourse concerning transitional justice. Based on this, the present text aims to show how transitional justice has been deficient in Brazil and then discuss how Bolsonaro’s government has made the situation even worse by dismantling the policies that were developed under former governments.
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Mobilized to Commit War Crimes?
In that earlier post, I argued that states have a legal obligation to recognize the refugee status of Russian troops who flee to avoid participating in what is a war of aggression. That argument applies equally to this new scenario. Those who refuse to fight and who leave Russia to avoid doing so should be recognized as refugees. However, there is now an additional way to ground that claim.
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Eroding Indonesian Local Democracy
Under the administration of President Joko Widodo (Jokowi), Indonesia undergoes a period of democratic decay and constitutional demise. In a recent example, there will be at least 170 interim regional heads leading their regions without any constitutional democratic legitimacy until the next General Elections in 2024, if the current malpractice by the Ministry of Home Affairs remains unchanged. Like the climate crisis, democratic backsliding is not some future grim prospect, but has already arrived and is well-underway.
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Coping Strategies of the Hungarian Constitutional Court since 2010
The very first step of Viktor Orbán’s Fidesz party after its 2010 electoral victory towards an ‘illiberal’ constitutional regime was to substantially limit the once very broad review powers of the Constitutional Court. The Fidesz government also started to pack the formerly activist Court with loyalist. By 2013 was appointed by Fidesz. Before 2013, the Court used some cautious strategies to keep a certain autonomy in the midst of threats to lose its independent status altogether by becoming part of the Supreme Court.
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Why EU Countries Should Open Their Borders to Russian Draft-Evaders
In a significant escalation of his war in Ukraine, Russia’s President Putin announced a partial mobilisation on the 21st of September. Attempting to avoid the draft, thousands of Russian men are reported to be fleeing the country. Are EU countries obliged to grant asylum to Russians who are (pre-emptively) evading Putin’s draft?
Continue reading >>The Brazilian Federal Supreme Court’s Reaction to Bolsonaro
It is a relatively uncontroversial opinion that the Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro has undermined the rule of law and its constitutional institutions. This contribution concentrates on the Brazilian apex courts to show how a mix of resilience in day-to-day work and a few confrontational positions played an important role in safeguarding the autonomy and independence of the judicial branch in Brazil during Jair Bolsonaro’s term.
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The Court, the Text, and the Struggle for Constitutional Fidelity in Brazil
The Brazilian Supreme Court is currently a polarizing institution. Multiple institutional features empower it to control the constitutionality of federal, state, and municipal norms both in the course of concrete and abstract review cases. The Court stands in the complicated position of being criticized for both its actions and its inaction, while it is called to adjudicate demands by actors from all points of the political spectrum, and as it has recently come to face unprecedent authoritarian attacks. And here is the crux of Brazilian current constitutional situation: the anti-institutional speech that has been put forward by Bolsonaro and his supporters has in some cases, on its face, not been against the Constitution per se. It is presented as if it were against institutions.
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The Legality of Evil
Lex iniusta non est lex – an unjust law is not a law. This centuries-old legal maxim lies at the heart of Balázs Majtényi's recent Verfassungsblog entry. Majtényi relies on it to challenge the Hungarian legal system. This essay is, however, not concerned with the accuracy of this description, but the utility of Radbruch’s formula when faced with legal systems we deem evil. Here, my answer differs radically from Majtényi’s.
Continue reading >>Coping Strategies: Domestic and International Courts in Times of Backlash
Domestic and regional human rights courts around the world are under pressure. Populist, illiberal, or autocratic forms of governance have led to a global attack on constitutional democracy, and its guardians, courts. As a result, courts find themselves in a dilemma: should they intervene much more fiercely to uphold the rule of law or protect their institutional powers, but risk to be further attacked as enemies of the government and the majorities? Or should they practice judicial and prudential restraint to safeguard their institutional autonomy in the long term, but risk to be failing and regarded as foes by minority groups, civil society, and progressive movements who are on the receiving end of populist, illiberal or autocratic practices?
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The Ukrainian Wonder
Ukraine will win this war. As a democracy.
Continue reading >>The Republic Debate in Australia
With the death of long reigning monarch Queen Elizabeth II, and the ascension of King Charles III, a conversation has been reignited as to whether it is time for Australia to move to a republic. In Australia, this conversation is complicated by the failure of the republic referendum in 1999. The divisions over the model of selecting the Head of State that marred that vote remain unresolved, and there is a distinct lack of any urgency within the broader Australian public.
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Pandora’s Box and Nostalgia
Especially over the last three years, people have been demonstrating on the streets of Brazilian cities, expressing their support of Jair Bolsonaro and even demanding the return of military rule. „I authorize“ (military intervention) is a now common cry among Bolsonaro’s sympathizers, often read on banners. Some of the demonstrators are more explicit and openly demand „Military intervention with Bolsonaro“. Why is this happening? Why are these citizens willing to give up their citizen rights not only in favour of a military dictatorship, but of a leader who apparently is capable of seducing, yes, hypnotising them in a way that no General-President during the military dictatorship could ever do?
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The Challenge of Religious Populism to Constitutional Secularism in Brazil
Brazil is currently experiencing a tense electoral campaign, in which several candidates, most notably former president Lula da Silva (Workers‘ Party), are trying to prevent the reelection of far-right populist Jair Bolsonaro. In the segmentation of the electorate, one group has deserved special attention from all campaigns, the incumbent and its rivals: the so-called “evangelicals”. The evangelical electorate is more conservative, and thus has more affinities with Bolsonaro than with left-wing politicians. The politically organized evangelical community has made the Federal Supreme Court one of its main opponents.
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Whispers of Change
Until recently, a debate on Mexico’s Supreme Court's power to scrutinize the constitutionality of constitutional provisions seemed largely distant. But for the first time in its history, the Supreme Court discussed a draft opinion of one of its members calling for the inapplicability of Article 19 of the Mexican Constitution, which provides the so-called mandatory preventive imprisonment as an automatic measure when investigating specific felonies. With the future of Mexican constitutionalism pending from this decision, the stakes are as high as they have ever been.
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The Armed Forces and the Constitution in Brazil
The Armed Forces are back in power in Brazil. This time, differently from 1937 and 1964, it happened through elections. As one of the main supporting groups behind Jair Bolsonaro’s electoral victory in 2018, the military’s role in his government continued to grow. I argue that, firstly, the text addressing the military functions in the Constitution of 1988 repeats the same mistakes made by past Brazilian constitutions; and secondly, that the South American countries’ constitutional framework points out attractive alternative constitutional design options on the topic.
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Constitutionalism under Bolsonaro
On the eve of a fateful election that will determine whether the last four years have been a bad dream and a footnote in Brazil’s political history, or not, the legacy of Bolsonaro’s regime for constitutional law and constitutionalism is widely and expertly discussed. Despite all his rhetorical machismo, Bolsonaro has not governed as a classical autocrat: he was democratically elected and his subsequent administration always found itself between the rock of a fragmented, yet viscerally opportunistic legislature, and the hard place of a judiciary that - while not always unsympathetic to his program - has been primarily interested in safeguarding its autonomy and its (self-)assumed role as the last word on virtually everything.
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Right-Wing Populists and the Global Climate Agenda
The rise of right-wing populist leaders, governments and political parties around the world has impacted environmental policy in general and the climate agenda particularly. In this brief commentary, we aim to contribute to an emerging literature that studies the relation between far-right populist rhetoric and actions on climate change policy. The idea is to analyse whether Jair Bolsonaro brings new tactics to the playbook of autocratic leaders, and if so which types. While political dynamics in Hungary, Poland and the USA have all been studied to establish the links between populist politics and climate inaction, there is still room to broaden the view to countries of the Global South.
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Mobilisation
Putin’s speech did not explicitly mention concrete plans to annex Ukrainian occupied territories, but Putin did announce a quick “recognition” of the fake “referenda” on joining Russia in Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, scheduled in just a few days. In terms of international law, planned annexations will change nothing. States are under international legal obligation not to recognise any territorial changes declared by Russia. Any territorial concessions imposed on Ukraine under nuclear blackmail would also be legally null and void. Putin’s desperate attempt to change the game is unlikely to influence the resilience of Ukraine and its allies.
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How Courts Became a Battlefront Against Disinformation
This October, Brazilians will elect their next President amidst a wave of disinformation aimed at discrediting the electoral process, and the electronic voting system in particular. One of the main engines of disinformation has been President Jair Bolsonaro himself. The problems created by the President’s constant spreading of disinformation – now targeting the core of Brazil’s representative democracy – go beyond the (in itself very serious) question of whether he could or could not pull off an outright refusal to leave office, in spite of an electoral defeat. Bolsonaro’s unsubstantiated charges of fraud can contribute to and encourage confusion and violence during and after the elections.
Continue reading >>Bolsonarism at the Ballot Box
If things go badly, the upcoming elections in Brazil may be the last ones for some time to come. Incumbent president Jair Bolsonaro threatens to use the Trump playbook to dispute a possible election loss, counting on the violent support of his highly mobilized followers and parts of the Brazilian military nostalgic for the military dictatorship. His contender, former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who initially refused to wear a bullet proof vest, has now taken wear one on his rallies. During his tenure, Bolsonaro has drawn on populist anti-establishment sentiments and authoritarian legacies to develop his own, peculiar brand of illiberal rule known as Bolsonarism. Our symposium discusses Bolsonarism at the ballot box from the perspective of comparative constitutional law.
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How to Deal With Evil Law in Hungary and Elsewhere
The Hungarian authoritarian regime that arose in the populist wave of societal processes accompanying the 2008-2009 economic and financial crisis has created a legal system in Hungary which is flawed and compromised in numerous ways. But is it valid? Can the law this regime put into force be accepted as law at all? It appears that, with a few exceptions, the debates on restoring constitutionalism have not addressed this issue in depth. This article intends to demonstrate that the Hungarian legal system does indeed lack validity. To argue my point, I am using a simple formula that is easy to articulate and has symbolic meaning for practice in dark times.
Continue reading >>Völlige Autonomie
Ist die deutsche Justiz so unabhängig, wie sie sein sollte?
Continue reading >>Missing Freedom Act
The European Commission is due to present its Media Freedom Act (MFA) this week. The MFA is not welcomed by several states, for different reasons. Some fear that their current system of media freedom and pluralism will be compromised. Others worry that their captured media scene will be exposed and investigated. Both types of opponents can relax because the Media Freedom Act draft is as impactful as a light breeze. It only scratches the surface, and important safeguards are missing.
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Giving Offence is no Offence
The death of Queen Elizabeth II last week, and thus the accession to the throne of King Charles III is an opportunity for reflection. However, what some have found here in the UK is that expressing republican sentiment in public has been met with a policing intervention – arrest or warning. This post considers the legality of expressing such views, and thus of the police response too, as well as some wider issues about the policing of protest, dissent and free speech.
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Klimaschutz geht durch den Magen
Am 25. September 2022 stimmt die Schweiz über die eidgenössische Volksinitiative „Keine Massentierhaltung in der Schweiz (Massentierhaltungsinitiative)“ ab. Die Initiative fordert das Ende der industriellen Tierproduktion bzw. die Abkehr von der Massentierhaltung und den Aufbruch hin zu einer zukunftsfähigen, tierfreundlich(er)en und ressourcenschonenden Landwirtschaft. Obschon die Initiative primär ein tierschutzpolitisches Anliegen verfolgt, ist sie insbesondere für die Klimapolitik von grösster Bedeutung.
Continue reading >>Evolution vs Revolution
We are all aware of the polarization afflicting modern democratic societies. It has intensified to the point that each camp perceives the “other” as a threat to its values and way of life. I argue that the current conflicts democratic societies face are often rooted in constitutional clauses that preserve problematic past laws predating the adoption of the constitution. The preservation of these laws has sentenced countries to a long battle to reconcile between their democratic and liberal values and the ghosts of a more anachronistic past.
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A Seismic Shift
On 1 September 2022, the Eastern Cape High Court handed down its eagerly anticipated judgment in the case of Sustaining the Wild Coast NPC and Others v Minister of Mineral Resources and Energy and Others (the Shell case). The judgment had the effect of setting aside an exploration right that would have enabled Shell to conduct seismic surveys off South Africa’s coastline, in its search for oil and gas reserves. The judgment has been hailed by social and environmental justice activists alike. Although the case was decided more narrowly on administrative law principles, I argue that the judgment holds greater significance in that it highlights the importance of civil society activism and the crucial role of the judiciary in upholding constitutionally protected social and environmental rights.
Continue reading >>Pandering to peoples’ emotions is no solution
Poland’s next parliamentary elections will be held in autumn 2023. Polish academics are currently discussing how to repair the country's judiciary if the PiS government gets voted out of office. In this blogpost, Marcin Matczak offers a personal account of the on-going debate and advocates for a pragmatic rather than an emotional response.
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Frontex and ‘Algorithmic Discretion’ (Part II)
Part I of this contribution explains how the regulatory design of the European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) raises issues in relation to the rule of law principle of legality. Essentially, the ETIAS screening rules algorithm illustrates how automation can lead to what I suggest is a new form of arbitrariness. Part II reflects on how these legality issues affect other rule of law principles, including the principle of effective judicial protection. In turn, it raises three accountability issues and calls into question the assumption that the safeguard of manual processing in case of a ‘hit’ is a panacea for all rule of law challenges stemming from this semi-automated decision-making.
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Frontex and ‘Algorithmic Discretion’ (Part I)
This contribution, presented in two parts, offers a predictive glimpse into future rule of law challenges due to the European Border and Coast Guard Agency’s (Frontex) primary responsibility for the automated processing and screening rules of the soon-to-be-operational European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) at the EU’s external borders. . In Part I on legality, I argue that the ETIAS screening rules algorithm illustrates how automation can lead to what I suggest is a new form of arbitrariness – which I refer to as ‘algorithmic discretion’. This can be defined as a situation where the exercise of power and discretion and their limitations are not sufficiently specified at the legislative level but are delegated to an algorithm instead.
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In einer Handvoll Staub
Ukraine, Frankreich, die EU und die Begrünung der Ödnis
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In a Handful of Dust
Ukraine, France, the EU, and the Revegetation of the Wasteland
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Frontex and Data Protection
Frontex has become notorious for its multiple fundamental rights violations, including pushbacks. The problem of fundamental rights infringements associated with the Agency has been lasting for years, leading ultimately to the resignation of the Executive Director. What I argue in this post is, first, that the fundamental right to the protection of personal data by Frontex has not yet received sufficient attention by scholars and EU institutions. Second, data protection within the Agency needs to be strengthened to prevent any future new scandals.
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No Longer Feeling the Energy
On 25 August 2022, the government of Poland surprised all when it sent a previously approved (but unannounced) bill on the termination of the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) to the State’s lower chamber. The ECT is the biggest multilateral investment treaty in the world and the only one to exclusively regulate cooperation in the energy sector.
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The Secretiveness over the OLAF Report on Frontex Investigations
The gravity of the decision not to disclose the OLAF Report should not be underestimated. The decision of not initiating proceedings on its basis should not either. Excluding the public scrutiny over such serious violations of human rights and breaches of EU law committed by those who are entrusted with applying it, weakens our democracy and fails to respect the very same values it was founded on. In a Union based on the rule of law, the accountability of civil servants should be ensured through efficient mechanisms.
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Financial Scrutiny of Frontex as a Political Accountability Tool
An investigation by the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) on allegations of misconduct within Frontex ended with a report classified as confidential, which was therefore only accessible to the agency’s Management Board. Shortly after submission of the report, Frontex’ Executive Director (ED), Fabrice Leggeri, resigned, opening up a new cycle in the governance of the agency. Following up on this, the European Parliament (EP) decided to postpone the discharge of Frontex’ budget on the ground of lacking information with regard to the subject of the OLAF report. In this contribution, I argue that the EP’s refusal to approve the discharge of the budget of Frontex, even though having little impact on the financial stability of the agency, is a tool to enable the political accountability of Frontex.
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Pakistan’s Call for Climate Reparations
Torrential monsoon rains have triggered Pakistan’s worst floods this century. So far, at least 1,300 people have been killed and a third of the country is under flood waters. Entire villages have been washed away and an estimated three million children are in need of humanitarian assistance. Against this backdrop, Pakistan’s minister for climate change has called for rich nations to pay reparations to developing States suffering climate loss and damage. In this blog post, I will put the claims for climate reparations in an international law context.
Continue reading >>Chile’s constitutional endeavour goes on
The Chilean people overwhelmingly rejected the draft constitution in the referendum held on September 4. How did it come to that? And what will happen now? A few first impressions on a result that seemed impossible a few months ago.
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Gorbachev’s Legacy in Lithuania
The last President of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, who oversaw its largely peaceful collapse, passed away last week at the age of 91. Despite the praise from Western leaders, Lithuanian's public view is mostly unaffected by "Gorbamania". Gorbachev's reputation in Lithuania was irreparably damaged by the crackdown of January 13, 1991. After failing to seize control of important institutions in Vilnius, Soviet forces killed 14 individuals and injured hundreds more in a bloody massacre.
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European Oversight on Frontex
The scandals about the complicity of Frontex in human rights violations in autumn 2020 exposed weaknesses in the accountability system. In this blog, I will elaborate on this by presenting the rules governing democratic accountability, followed by an analysis of the lessons learned during the parliamentary inquiry on Frontex’ human rights-related performances, in the light of their obligations. I will conclude with ideas on how to strengthen democratic accountability, and how to expand it to the much-needed public accountability of Frontex.
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The “Year of Historical Memory” and Mnemonic Constitutionalism in Belarus
On 1st of September 2022, the academic year in all Belarusian schools started with an atypical lesson, on “historic memory” – led in Minsk by none other than the country’s “President” himself, Aliaksandr Łukašenka. There is a constitutional dimension to historical memory in Belarus, which is better grasped through the looking glass of mnemonic constitutionalism.
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Frontex and Migrants’ Access to Justice
While possibly marking a step in the right direction towards more political accountability, the controversial resignation of Frontex’s former Executive Director, Fabrice Leggeri, leaves open the question about the effective judicial protection for migrants interacting with the agency. A number of judicial actions are brought before the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), as the only competent tribunal with jurisdiction on Frontex. By critically reviewing these judicial actions from the perspective of migrants’ access to justice, this post aims to flag the limits of the existing system of EU judicial remedies in light of Frontex wrongdoings. Beyond access to a court, access to justice vis-à-vis EU migration agencies must integrate elements of good governance, such as transparency and accountability.
Continue reading >>What Monitoring for Fundamental Rights at EU Borders?
The legal and structural problem of fundamental rights protection and its monitoring at the EU’s external borders in the context of border police operations is high on the EU political and legislative agenda at the moment. In this blog I argue that a truly independent system for monitoring human rights compliance at EU borders must be established which is the responsibility of state bodies, building on existing entities such as Ombudspersons, National Human Rights Institutions, National Preventive Mechanisms. The border monitoring activities must be coordinated across Member States and the competent monitoring bodies must have access to their sister bodies in relevant third countries.
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Here We Stand
On Sunday, 28 August 2022, four major associations of European judges announced that they would challenge the Council’s Decision of 17 June that releases funds to Poland to help it recover from the COVID-19 pandemic. The four associations are seeking to prevent the release of recovery funds to Poland until it has complied with the Court’s judgments in full. Whether their action has any chance of success will depend on how the Court applies the long-standing Plaumann criteria.
Continue reading >>What’s in a Name?
The available non-judicial forms of accountability are insufficient to ensure the accountability of the agency. Neither their combination nor the respective parts can constitute effective non-judicial remedy in the meaning of Article 13 of the European Convention for Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, while their pre-emptive functionality is not deemed adequate to prevent violations. Therefore, the need for legal accountability in the form of judicial remedies becomes all the more essential.
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A New European Political Community: The British Perspective
The upcoming State of the Union address scheduled for 14 September and the succession of Liz Truss as UK Prime Minister looks set to be a potential turning point in EU relations. But will the EU grasp it? Could a new intergovernmental political forum – acting alongside EU enlargement – ease the tension of EU treaty change? Such a forum might bridge the potential role prospective EU member states in Eastern Europe could play before formally joining and the necessity of forging a constructive post-Brexit relationship with the UK. It could resolve political and constitutional concerns.
Continue reading >>Hybrid EU External Border Management
The recent resignation of the Executive Director of Frontex disguises in fact the many structural problems and flaws resulting from the hybrid exercise of significant executive powers within a shallow legal framework. This blogpost argues that this leads to a lack of clarity, adequate controls and safeguards which in turn creates fertile ground for abuse of power and unaccountability.
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Facing Up: Impact-Motivated Research Endangers not only Truth, but also Justice
All (but one) responses to my reflections on the ethics of activism as scholars in this blog symposium have been thoughtful, engaged, and charitable. For them, I am very grateful. If my rule-consequentialist worries have any truth to them, we should worry more rather than less about having the relevant motivation I castigate. When the moral stakes are higher (such as in vast areas of the Global South), one has to be even more careful about not making moral mistakes. The debate is not about whether one should be moral (by definition, we should be). It is about what is the most effective means in which the constitutional studies academy can contribute to a more just world.
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Frontex and the Rule of Law Crisis at EU External Borders
The resignation of the Executive Director of the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (hereinafter: Frontex or Agency) at the end of April 2022 re-opened Pandora’s box with regard to the adequacy of the accountability mechanisms on the Agency. The turmoil was caused by several allegations of breaches of the law, which seems to be confirmed by the OLAF report, leaked at the end of July 2022. The aim of this blogpost is, first, to discuss the emergence of a rule of law crisis in border management and, second, to lay a finger on issues regarding both internal and external oversight mechanisms over Frontex, with special attention for the composition of the Management Board, the very first oversight body within the Agency.
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An ‘Impossible Trinity’?
In international macroeconomics, the term ‘Impossible Trinity’ refers to three elements, which are impossible to coexist. In this Verfassungsblog series, we examine whether the EU’s external border policy, Frontex and the rule of law constitute such an ‘Impossible Trinity’, or whether they can be reconciled with appropriate accountability mechanisms.
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Czechia’s First Climate Judgment
Czechia’s first climate change lawsuit ended with a small sensation. On the hot summer day of 15th June, the Municipal Court in Prague ruled that four Czech Ministries violated the plaintiffs‘ right to a favourable environment. The violation consists in the omission to set any concrete mitigation measures that would lead to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by the year 2030 compared to the year 1990. As the Urgenda Climate Case and other landmark judgments have paved the way for climate action around the world, this first noteworthy ruling of the region blazed the trail specifically for other courts in Central and Eastern Europe.
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Klagen können
Sollte der Job der Hüterin der Verträge vergesellschaftet werden?
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Child Protection, Sexuality and Feindstrafrecht
Across EU Member States, we are witnessing the growing use of criminal law for punishing behaviors related to the sexualization of minors, which do not directly imply the abuse of actual minors. This use of criminal law presents many reasons for perplexity.
Continue reading >>Win or Lose, Chile’s Draft Constitution Heralds a New Era of Climate Constitutionalism
On September 4, Chileans will vote on whether to adopt a new constitution. It is a deeply contested election. Polls show that the yes vote is trailing by roughly 10% points, but with over 15% of voters still undecided, as of last week. The debate over the new text has centered on questions of the balance of powers, the autonomy of indigenous people, and the participation of the private sector in the provision of social security, health, and education. But one of the most innovative features of the text is not getting enough attention domestically – its deep engagement with environmentalism, and with climate change in particular.
Continue reading >>A Parliament Shaped by the ‘Worst Election Law Ever’
The campaign for the next Italian general election, scheduled for [...]
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Why Academic Ivory Towerism Can’t Be The Answer
At a time in which a worrying number of risks conspire to threaten the end of democracy and humanity – from climate change to uncontrolled new technologies –, to confine the remit of the legal scholar to the narrow boundaries of academic purity appears ahistorical at best, irresponsible at worst.
Continue reading >>What Makes Responsible Government Responsible?
How important is it for a Parliament to know which Ministers are appointed to administer which departments? This odd question has been at the centre of a furore in Australia in recent weeks. It has focussed attention on the legal and political requirements for ‘responsible government’, to use the characterisation of the relationship between Crown, Ministers and Parliament that is in common use in parliamentary systems in the British tradition, including those in Australia. It raises some intriguing questions for the construction of the executive chapter of the Australian Constitution, which are all the more important in times of global concern about democratic decline.
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Nudging After the Replication Crisis
Not so long ago, nudging seemed to many to be the governance tool of the future. Behavioral interventions, like reminders or information about other people’s behavior, come at low cost, help their addressees make better choices, and do not hamper their addresses’ autonomy. Meanwhile, however, the replication crisis has shaken the behavioral sciences, famous studies have been retracted due to data fraud, and, more generally, the very effectiveness of nudging has been put into question.
Continue reading >>Secrecy, Democracy, and the Greek Wiretapping Case
The Androulakis case not only challenged and altered the Greek political agenda, but also provoked substantial concerns about the protection of the right to secrecy of communications and in a wider sense the quality of rule of law in Greece.
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Sharing the Cost of the Crisis
In late July, the two political parties supporting the Spanish Government (the socialist party and the leftist Podemos) presented a proposal for approving a law on the windfall profits of banks and large energy companies in Parliament. This is supposed to tax companies earning extra profits from the recent price increase in energy and the financial sector which was slightly affected by the increase in inflation but will have a considerable profit from the rise of interest rates. The bill could serve as an example for other European countries.
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What’s wrong with good “scholactivism”?
There is a fine line between suspicion based on the nature of the motivation (seeking direct material change), and the substance of the motivation (commitment to a particular normative position). Once the “scholactivist” label gets thrown around, it may be hard to maintain that distinction. And it is to normative positions which advocate new ideas or change – including those that are reflective or well-considered – to which the label is most likely to attach.
Continue reading >>Scholactivism and Academic Self-Awareness
In the past decade, the U.K. has seen the overwhelming influence of the populist right. It manifests most famously in the Brexit process, but also in continuous calls for a reversal of liberal constitutionalism. Notably this process is bolstered by a group of scholars, many of whom were in my own faculty at Oxford, who serve as legitimation of government policy and spur its development. Importantly, though clearly highly effective ‘scholactivists’, these scholars would never describe themselves as such. We need to follow the money, we need to follow its route to power and to understand the role the academy plays in legitimating and building these ideological (and often religious) positions.
Continue reading >>Scholactivism and the Global South
Tarunabh Khaitan’s article “On scholactivism in constitutional studies: Skeptical thoughts” has prompted us to make a number of observations. It is a welcome intervention insofar as it may perhaps provide an impetus for a much needed debate within constitutional studies, which on the one hand seeks to lay bare certain kinds of privilege that undergirds the positionality of scholars arguing against Scholactivism, and on the other hand also makes the case for empirically grounded and interdisciplinary engagement in constitutional studies. Yet, to those of us located in, writing from and about the Global South—which includes both the geographical South as well as pockets of it in the Global North (including racialised and Indigenous populations)—this contention raises several concerns.
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NGOs in distress
During the summer of 2020, two ships operated by the non-governmental organization Sea Watch reached Italian shores after rescuing migrants in distress at sea. Upon arrival, both ships were detained at two Sicilian ports. Sea Watch brought two legal actions for the annulment of the detention measures. On 1 August 2022, the CJEU delivered its judgement on the case.
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‘Activism’ Is Not the Problem
My claim and critique of Khaitan’s position is that constitutional law scholars must produce actual answers to questions of legality, constitutionality or feasibility. Scholars may differ in whether or not they start their inquiry with a ‘material outcome’ as their hypothesis but the quality of work by both ‘activist’ and ‘non-activist’ scholars is to be assessed on the basis of the outcome and their academic integrity.
Continue reading >>The Constitution of What?
On 4 September, the Chilean people will vote on whether a draft constitution, the result of the work of a Constitutional Convention, will replace the current constitution, which dates back to Pinochet’s dictatorship. Chile’s constituent process, one might think, will thus soon be over. The future is less clear. The draft can be understood as as an exercise of social self-constitution. Its feasibility, however, seems to depend on accommodating social pluralism with the opposed logic of the realm of politics and its permanent dynamic of generating a unity that speaks with one voice.
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More and Better
Tarunabh Khaitan’s editorial comment in ICON on the perils of letting activist inclinations influence one’s scholarship, resulting in an unsavoury “scholactivism” blend, is thought-provoking. Professor Khaitan calls for rigorous adherence to the ethical demands of a search for truth in our research, even as we might, he suggests, become or remain activists for causes we believe in a range of other activities. In my view, however, Professor Khaitan’s critique misses the mark. He is asking too much of individuals and not enough of institutions.
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Integrity and Independence
Professor Khaitan has written a powerful analysis and defense of the role of scholars in pursuing knowledge; he raises many more important issues than I have space to address here. I write in full agreement with several of the attitudes towards scholarly work that Khaitan emphasizes, especially the need for independence of judgment and an openness to revision, but find his “scholactivism” category too broadly conceptualized. Universities and their scholars must focus primarily on knowledge – its production, preservation, and dissemination – but good scholarship can be directed to material change in the world as well as to changes in understanding.
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From Intellectual Poker to Open Debate
Tarunabh Khaitan’s editorial in the International Journal of Constitutional Law presents insightful remarks about the risk that scholactivism may fail both as scholarship and as activism. I largely share Khaitan’s discomfort with scholactivism, which confuses two different goals: advancing human knowledge and advancing a political goal. However, I wonder whether the instrumentalist argument that Khaitan develops is really the decisive one. In this blog, I present some doubts about this instrumentalist argument before suggesting another line of argument, based on the intrinsic nature of academic research.
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Is Ethnic Gerrymandering a Solution for the Constitutional Impasse?
Christian Schmidt, the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, had a fit of temper last week. After the draft of the HR's “Decision Enacting the Law on Amendments to the Election Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina” had been leaked to the public, there had been mass demonstrations. What were the reasons and what is the legal and political background for his outrage?
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Academic Roles, Political Freedoms, and Practical Abilities
There is no general reason to suppose that constitutional law scholars should refrain from engaging in politics, and I think that a scholar’s motivation to achieve a certain political goal does not affect the value, quality, or credibility of the conclusions of her inquiry. Moreover, the austere research ethics underlying the arguments of Komárek and Khaitan imposes on constitutional law scholars a set of role obligations that are in tension with some dispositions and epistemic attitudes that are often necessary to be a competent scholar in value-laden disciplines like political philosophy and constitutional law.
Continue reading >>The Language of Power
Professor Tarunabh Khaitan’s ICON editorial on “scholactivism”, as well as his September 2021 Letten Prize lecture on "The Role of the Legal Scholar in the World" are unsettling. Although stepping aside and standing by may feel satisfactorily pure and avoids tensions as well as personal attacks in a post-truth world, it is not neutral – simply because any activity relating to constitutional law, active or passive, is inevitably a statement about politics and power. Instead, constitutional lawyers have a professional obligation to explicate in the public debate what forms the implicit basis of all conversation between them: the very relevance of the law to power and politics.
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A Defence of Scholactivism
A scholar motivated to achieve specific outcomes in her lifetime might be reasonably thought to bring a serious-mindedness, persistence and focus that arises from really caring about real-world effects of her work. And beyond scholarly energy, there is reason to suppose that the passion, commitment and even anger at injustice that often attends a scholactivist mindset might bring insight.
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Dobbs in the EU
EU leaders and institutions have reacted strongly to the US Supreme Court’s ruling in Dobbs, which overturned Roe v. Wade and held that the right to abortion was not consitutionally protected. Shortly after the decision was made public, the European Parliament adopted a resolution condemning Dobbs, and calling for the right to abortion to be included in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
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Bridging Legal Longtermism and Animal Law
Discussions of animal law and legal longtermism often take place separately. That separation is misguided. Each field has much to gain from the other. In this post, we explain why animal law is important for legal longtermism. We then propose two general steps that legal longtermists can take to bridge these fields.
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Putinism is Contagious
As Moscow’s invasion of Ukraine continues, EU Member States are contemplating new sanctions, including Schengen visa bans for Russian citizens. The underlying rationale is the WWI ‘enemy alien’ logic, where all Russian civilians are enemy aliens, and must be treated with suspicion. This populist construction of an ‘enemy alien’ is antithetical to the EU’s constitutional core, which also informs its visa and migration law. The populist retributive logic, to us, is a stress-test of the rule of law in the EU. It’s good news that, outside Estonia and Latvia, it seems to be holding strong in other Member States.
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Compute and Antitrust
Compute or computing power refers to a software and hardware stack, such as in a data centre or computer, engineered for AI-specific applications. We argue that the antitrust and regulatory literature to date has failed to pay sufficient attention to compute, despite compute being a key input to AI progress and services, the potentially substantial market power of companies in the supply chain, and the advantages of compute as a ‘unit’ of regulation in terms of detection and remedies.
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In Dubio Pro Futura
This post introduces a proposal to promote the long-term interests of humanity and to avert existential and other catastrophic risks, such as those resulting from extreme climate change, pandemics and unaligned artificial intelligence, through the adoption of a novel legal decision rule: in dubio pro futura. In the face of legal indeterminacy, when the law does not provide a single correct answer but a range of several acceptable answers, courts should choose the one most favorable to the future of humanity.
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Future-Proofing Global Health Governance Through the Proposed Pandemic Treaty
It is clear that humanity is not prepared for the next pandemic; the global health governance architecture requires fundamental change in order to get us to that point. If humanity is to be prepared for the next pandemic, we must fix the deep rooted, structural inequalities which are embedded within our global health system. The pandemic treaty is an opportunity to do this, but on the basis of the present proposals, and the manner in which the treaty is being developed, it is clear that the treaty will fall far short of such expectations.
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Extradition to Russia from an EU Member State
On 8 August 2022, a Bulgarian Regional Court, acting as a first instance, allowed the extradition of Alexey Alchin, a Russian national, to Russia upon the request of the Russian Prosecutor’s Office. This controversial decision sparked much debate among Bulgarian civil society because Alchin became known for burning his Russian passport at a protest against the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 and for maintaining anti-war stances. In the eyes of Bulgarian civil society, the request for his extradition is politically motivated.
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Effective Enforceability of EU Competition Law Under Different AI Development Scenarios
This post examines whether competition law can remain effective in prospective AI development scenarios by looking at six variables for AI development: capability of AI systems, speed of development, key inputs, technical architectures, number of actors, and the nature and relationship of these actors. For each of these, we analyse how different scenarios could impact effective enforceability. In some of these scenarios, EU competition law would remain a strong lever of control; in others it could be significantly weakened. We argue that despite challenges to regulators' ability to detect and remedy breaches, in many future scenarios the effective enforceability of EU competition law remains strong.
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“Thank you very much, your mail is perfectly fine”
About two weeks ago, the Commission presented its draft for a "Regulation laying down rules to prevent and combat child sexual abuse". The planned introduction of the inspection of all digitally sent messages is likely to be the largest state surveillance project in Europe since the end of the Cold War and blatantly violates the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
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My spy is always with me
On 11 May this year, the European Commission presented its draft of a "Regulation laying down rules to prevent and combat child sexual abuse". Initial reactions to the draft have been controversial. The draft bundles measures to combat sexualized violence that have been common for some time, but whose technical and legal controversies have still not been fully overcome. What is new, however, is that under the proposed regulation, individual communications on certain communications services are to be searched for certain content on a large scale and in part without any probable cause.
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Testing judicial independence
Despite the recent abolition of the Disciplinary Chamber, the crisis in the Polish judiciary is still far from resolved. The main reason for this is that the status of judges appointed at the request of the National Council of the Judiciary have not yet been addressed. As a result of the lack of a systemic solution, the problem of irregular judicial appointments must be dealt with by courts in concrete cases. For that purpose, the Supreme Court developed a test aimed at determination of the impact of irregularities in the appointment of judges on the legality of the composition of the court. The most recent amendment to the Act on the Supreme Court introduced a new test and raises serious concerns.
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Why Banning Russian Tourists from Schengen Might not Be Unlawful
Recently, politicians in different EU countries have suggested barring Russian tourists from visiting the EU. Such a ban would be in retaliation for the war waged by Russia against Ukraine. From a legal perspective, these suggestions raise the interesting question whether such a blanket ban would be lawful. From a legal perspective, the question is precisely whether there is a possibility to amend the existing acquis, in order to ban Russians from obtaining short term visas for the purpose of visiting Europe as tourists. It seems hardly tenable to argue that the EU (secondary) legislature is somehow bound by the ratio legis of the current Schengen visa system.
Continue reading >>Heated tempers and legal ambiguities
After some heads of EU governments advocated for an all-out ban of Russian nationals’ Schengen visas, a heated academic and political debate arose over the question whether the EU could bar Russians from acquiring visas for a short-term stay in the Schengen area. Could a sweeping travel ban for Russian citizens be justified in the light of EU law? This blogpost advises caution.
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Why Restricting Tourist Visas to Russians is Legitimate
In the aftermath of Ukrainian President Zelenski’s call on the EU to introduce a ban on short-term ‘tourist’ visas for Russians wishing to travel the Schengen area, a lively debate on the issue erupted, featuring important interventions not last on this website. For instance, Sarah Ganty argues that an EU tourist visa ban would be ethically wrong and unlawful. However, there is no absolute right to travel through the EU.
Continue reading >>Long-term Constitutional Law for Global Public Goods
The rules-based order necessary for realizing the sustainable development goals (SDGs) requires antagonistic, perennial struggles for justice challenging abuses of power and struggling for collective protection of the SDGs. Without such a ‘Sisyphus morality’ and stronger leadership from constitutional democracies for improving multilevel governance of global public goods, realization of the SDGs and protecting ‘human rights of all’ risk remaining a utopia.
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Pathogen Dematerialisation as an Existential Threat to Global Health Justice
Rapid levels of growth and development within the field of synthetic biology pose an undeniable threat to equity and global health justice as a result of the rise in the dematerialisation of pathogen samples. Until fairly recently, it was impossible to detach physical virus samples from the information they contained - the sample was the information - but technological advancements have allowed for the dematerialisation of pathogen samples to occur on a global scale. Whilst there are undoubtedly benefits to be derived from dematerialisation, it poses an existential threat to those international agreements which are underpinned by access and benefit sharing agreements.
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Extratemporal Jurisdiction
When may a court legitimately rule over affairs of the future at all? Before thinking about how to resolve such cases, we need to clarify the conditions legitimatising the exercise of judicial authority. My (necessarily cursory) argument in this blogpost is twofold. First, I argue that it is both useful and conceptually apt to think about legitimate authority as a jurisdictional question. Second, I propose a heuristic condition that justifies the judicial exercise of extratemporal jurisdiction over future events: preserving choice.
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Extinguishing the Court
The three quasi-judges in the Constitutional Tribunal and their participation in its adjudication are like a spoonful of tar in a barrel of honey: they contaminate the whole of the Tribunal. That is why the whole of the Constitutional Tribunal should be replaced in the event of a electoral victory of the democratic opposition in 2023.
Continue reading >>Proactive International Law
In this blog post we challenge the reactive nature of international law, a discipline that has largely developed in response to specific crises and incidents, such as wars, pandemics, mass migrations, economic breakdowns, or technological advancements. While we acknowledge that the reactive paradigm of international law has facilitated adoption of pragmatic solutions to the concrete problems encountered and offered international law a path by which to direct its development, this approach, we contend, has led international law to be backward-looking, short-sighted, and ill-prepared to address newly emerging global threats and advances.
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A Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing
In Brazil, the National Congress recently passed the Constitutional Amendment no. 123, nicknamed the “Kamikaze Bill” due to it budgetary impact. It qualifies the current situation – inflation, rise of gasoline price, shortage of goods, pandemic to name just a few – as an emergency state, creating financial and tax benefits for biofuel producers and providing welfare payments for part of the population.
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The Rise of the Constitutional Protection of Future Generations
Constitutions worldwide have seen the rise of future generations. Considering the 193 UN member states, Kosovo, Palestine, and Taiwan, 41% (81 out of 196) of constitutions explicitly referenced future generations as of 2021. We find that this trend started in the early 1990s, lagging behind environmental constitutionalism by two decades. Why do constitutions increasingly refer to future generations? Based on a comprehensive data collection including all constitutions ever written, we argue that future generations are a significant part of a modern, universalist language of constitution-making.
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Privacy in Peril
On Saturday, 25 June 2022, American women woke up to a different reality – one day earlier, in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, five justices on the US Supreme Court decided that the US Constitution does not protect a woman’s right to terminate a pregnancy. This undoing of women’s autonomy comes in part from the Dobbs majority’s failure to recognize that the right to terminate a pregnancy derives from a right to privacy. Roe and Casey recognized that reproductive freedom implicates bodily integrity and physical privacy, along with a decisional privacy interest in the critical life choices surrounding reproduction and family planning. In the space of a single day, the Dobbs Court eviscerated the freedom and the privacy rights Americans have relied on since 1973. Moreover, in an era driven by an information economy and rapidly expanding surveillance technologies, the Dobbs Court’s eradication of the right to terminate a pregnancy also severely compromises informational privacy, which involves the right to shield information from disclosure.
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Extra-Constitutional Commitment Mechanisms
The solution to many public dilemmas requires long-term effort by successive generations. Such situation arises whenever the solution to a public dilemma cannot be implemented instantaneously but is dependent on the continuous effort of future governments (and their citizens). In this post I discuss the problem of securing intergenerational cooperation, focusing on the challenge of designing long-term commitment mechanisms. I will also reflect briefly on the tension between commitment mechanisms and the democratic ideal of citizen sovereignty (allowing each generation to make its own choices).
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Why Banning Russians from Schengen Is Unlawful
Volodymyr Zelensky, the Prime Minister of Finland and others have been calling for an EU-wide ban of Russian citizens from Schengen visas. Unquestionably, the horrible crimes perpetrated by the Russian state should be punished. But Russians are citizens of a totalitarian state, they are not Putin. And whether we like it or not, there is no legal way under current EU law to adopt a blanket citizenship-based ban against Russians acquiring Schengen visas. Even more: political attention paid to it by persons in leadership positions is deeply surprising, if not irresponsible.
Continue reading >>Narrow Rules are not Enough
With continuing proliferation of increasingly capable AI systems, we will need regulation to address the associated risks. Since our ability to foresee such future risks is very limited, our best bet is to base such regulation on relatively general principles, rather than narrow rules. We think that negative human rights with their existing broad international support could form a suitable foundation both for flexible regulation and for the associated technical solutions.
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An Intertemporal Perspective on Intergenerational Equity
The traditional understanding of intertemporal law is not persuasive – a modified intertemporal approach to intergenerational equity is necessary. This approach would have to shift the perspective of intertemporal law from a retrospective present-past relationship to a future-oriented perspective. Instead of observing the evolutionary developments of law over time and retrospectively applying them at a certain point in the future, the new approach departs from the contemporary legal regime and attempts to anticipate its prospective evolutionary developments – with regard to intergenerational equity only.
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Mein Spion ist immer bei mir
Am 11. Mai hat die Europäische Kommission ihren Entwurf einer „Verordnung zur Festlegung von Vorschriften zur Prävention und Bekämpfung des sexuellen Missbrauchs von Kindern“ vorgelegt. Die ersten Reaktionen auf den Entwurf waren kontrovers. Bei näherer Betrachtung bündelt der Entwurf einerseits Maßnahmen zur Bekämpfung sexualisierter Gewalt, die seit geraumer Zeit geläufig sind, deren technische Probleme und rechtliche Zweifelsfragen aber nach wie vor nicht vollständig bewältigt sind. Neu ist andererseits, dass nach der vorgeschlagenen Verordnung die Individualkommunikation auf bestimmten Kommunikationsdiensten großflächig und teils anlasslos auf bestimmte Inhalte durchsucht werden soll. Gerade dieser Teil des Entwurfs ist besonders kritisch zu bewerten.
Continue reading >>The Future of European Climate Change Litigation
On 7 June 2022 the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) relinquished jurisdiction to the Grand Chamber to hear the application lodged on 28 January 2021 on behalf of Damien Carême, former mayor of the Commune of Grande Synthe in France. While the case shares some characteristics with other climate change cases pending before the Court, it differs in some key respects, making it a unique case of its kind at the moment. The Court will have to be open to a shift towards a more ecological interpretation of the Convention and demonstrate its ability and talent to rise to the historic task required.
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Solidarity Across Time
I want to focus on the question of what the future can do for us – a question less asked, and which may seem antithetical to the idea of responsible behaviour now, and yet which is simply a part of the idea of solidarity across time. Its practical importance is that it strengthens the relationship between the present and future and so gives a more persuasive and coherent basis for solidaristic behaviour now
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Law must be enforceable
The Court of Justice of the European Union ruled on 01.08.2022 that administrative decisions refusing family reunification must be open to judicial review with a legal remedy. The decision had been long awaited. The underlying article only provided for a legal remedy “against”, not “for” a transfer decision. The CJEU clearly rejects this view and emphasizes that administrative decisions must generally be subject to judicial review, which is a hindrance to the EU Commission's plans to significantly reduce the number of legal remedies in the revised EU legislation.
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Paths Untaken
If the development of certain technologies, such as advanced, unaligned AI, would be as dangerous as some have suggested, a long-termist legal perspective might advocate a strategy of technological delay—or even restraint—to avoid a default outcome of catastrophe. To many, restraint–a decision to withhold indefinitely from the development, or at least deployment, of the technology–might look implausible. However, history offers a surprising array of cases where strategically promising technologies were delayed, abandoned, or left unbuilt, even though many at the time perceived their development as inevitable.
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Is Legal Longtermism Common Sense?
The past decade has seen a growing interest in protecting future generations from risks associated with climate change, pandemics, artificial intelligence, and other potential threats. Philosophical theories have developed in parallel, and those associated with the view that one should be particularly concerned with ensuring that the long-run future goes well have been referred to as longtermism. In the context of law, these theories form the basis for legal longtermism, the set of views associated with the claim that law and legal institutions ought to protect the far future. Based on a pair of recent empirical studies we show that legal experts and laypeople alike believe that the law should protect the long-term future much more than it currently does; that legal experts believe that the law can predictably and feasibly protect the long-term future; and that these beliefs hold true across major demographic subgroups.
Continue reading >>Krieg, wie er auch hieße
Wie das russische Recht das Sprechen und das Schweigen formt
Continue reading >>An Uncounted Confidence Vote
On 22 July, the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab, Pakistan’s largest province, convened to elect a new Chief Minister. Punjab’s political turmoil is the first trial run of the Court’s drastic reconfiguration of Pakistan’s political regime with a judgement this May that completely eliminates legislators’ ability to vote against the party line in confidence matters. Departing from essential principles of parliamentarism, the Court has incorporated the notion of executives remaining in office without the confidence of the House into Pakistan’s constitutional framework. The difficulties that already have arisen from working this party-centric parliamentarism demonstrate its dangers for democratic consolidation and underline the need for the Court to reconsider its position.
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The Re-Emergence of the Net Neutrality Debate in Europe
The European online space has been subjected to intensive legal reforms in recent years, and the policy and regulatory debates regarding the role and obligations of tech companies in Europe are far from over. With the rumoured Connectivity Infrastructure Act, the European Commission seeks to compel Big Tech actors to financially contribute to telecommunications infrastructure. This initiative risks opening the pandora's box of net neutrality, and potentially endangers the democratic principles of freedom of expression and pluralism.
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The EU’s regulatory push against disinformation
Tech billionaire Elon Musk’s surprise bid to buy Twitter questions the wisdom of the current EU efforts to combat the spread of disinformation, which has relied to a large extend on platforms’ voluntary cooperation. Whether successful or not, it raises serious questions on EU disinformation policy’s reliance on platforms’ discretion to moderate this category of speech. It is likely to put pressure on the carefully constructed web of self- and co-regulatory measures and legislation the European Commission has spun to counter the spread of disinformation.
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Challenging Censorship
India’s online censorship laws have, since they were framed, been entirely lacking in transparency, and have consequently shielded the Indian government from any and all form of accountability. A writ petition by Twitter in an Indian High Court hopes to change that. Depending on which way the Courts rule, the fundamental rights of free expression, of due process and of access to the internet of millions of Indians are going to be decided by the end of this case.
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Everything must remain the same for everything can change
The European Arrest Warrant mechanism has been one of the fiercest manifestations of the rule of law crisis in Poland. Four years have passed since the EU Court of Justice instructed executing courts to carry out a two-step test, to decide on the execution of EAWs issued by a Member State affected by systemic deficiencies to the independence of its judicial system. Four years later, the Polish government has only dug itself deeper into its authoritarian trench. With its recent rulings, the Court has significantly broadened the criteria and factors on which the executing courts can rely, when assessing the risk of a breach of Article 47(2) CFR in the issuing State.
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Fighting on the Business Front
Since 24th February 2022, international criminal justice has moved to ‘warp speed’: Russia’s flagrant aggression against the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine as well as the ensuing (and continuing) war has spawned a plurality of transformative developments across the whole realm of international criminal law. Last week, on 26th June 2022, these developments were further amplified by a statement issued by the Ukrainian government, which called for bringing war crimes charges against leaders and chairpersons of major international banks, including JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, or HSBC.
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Wanting to Know the Facts
Emily Dische-Becker, the FAZ, the Hizbullah, and the truth
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Die Fakten wissen wollen
Emily Dische-Becker, die FAZ, die Hizbullah und die Wahrheit
Continue reading >>Net Zero, Full Transparency
Earlier this month, during a record-breaking heatwave and a Conservative party leadership contest that will determine the next UK Prime Minister, the High Court quietly issued a judgment that may have nearly as much impact on the course of UK climate policy over the coming decades than either of the other events. The High Court judgement in the Net Zero Strategy legal challenge can be considered a landmark victory. On the one hand, the case can be understood as a narrow administrative law challenge to the process by which a government decision was made. On the other hand, however, the judgment can be understood in the context of a growing number of cases around the world which demonstrate the critical role of the law and the courts in creating accountability for climate action – something that is increasingly vital in the face of a warming world and a lack of public trust in key institutions.
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Accessing Information about Abortion
The U.S. Supreme Court decision of 24 June 2022 overruled a half century of precedent supporting a constitutional right to abortion across the U.S. established in 1973 in Roe v. Wade. Essentially, Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization left the decision on abortion to individual states. The ruling, although astonishing, was not necessarily a surprise, after its draft had leaked a few weeks earlier. But to the surprise of many, almost immediately, Facebook and Instagram started removing posts informing about access to abortion pills, the Associated Press and Vice first reported.
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Beyond Constitutional Doctrine?
In a recent post on Verfassungsblog, Michał Stambulski and Karol Muszyński make a number of wide-ranging statements and stinging criticisms of what they believe to be the shortcomings of “doctrinal constitutionalism”, “legal constitutionalism” and “doctrinal legal constitutionalism.” What the authors fail to do at any point, however, is define what they mean by these terms. Furthermore, their attack on doctrinal constitutionalism - which includes ad hominem attacks while ironically calling for a more serious engagement and less ‘emotional’ or ‘easy moral evaluation’ - fails to offer any alternative solutions to a rule of law crisis that the authors themselves readily acknowledge to be a problem. Aside from a plea to pay closer attention to economic, social and political context, it is by no means clear what they would put in place of the doctrinal/legal constitutionalism that they appear to be so passionately opposed to.
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Citizenship Imposition is the New Non-Discrimination Standard
Never before has the failure to naturalize been used by the Court against discriminated permanent residents, just as it would be unthinkable to greenlight the humiliation of Muslims by an Islamophobic government for failure to convert. The meaning of ‘discrimination’ in ECHR law has become less clear as a result of Savickis.
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On Osman Kavala and Turkish Judicial Failures
The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, in charge of monitoring compliance with ECtHR rulings, will now deliberate as to how to handle Turkey’s now judicially confirmed failure to release Kavala. Suspension of Turkey’s membership in the Council of Europe, is an option that is on the table, at least theoretically. The Kavala case is larger than Kavala himself though.
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Constitutionalizing the Court of Arbitration for Sport
Claudia Pechstein is an exceptional athlete. On ice, she seems immortal, skating through her 8th Winter Olympics in February 2022 in Beijing. In the court room, she has shown the same determination and refused to back down from a bitter and expensive legal struggle. The most recent decision in Claudia Pechstein's legal odyssey, a decision by Germany's Federal Constitutional Court, is interesting beyond the German context because it concerns one of the most active and at the same time under-researched global courts: The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS).
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The Government versus the President
A few days ago, the Georgian government filed a constitutional complaint against the President of Georgia to the Constitutional Court. Many in Georgia, and not only in Georgia, think that the government is trying to curtail the powers of the president and punish the president for her pro-European political activities. What is interesting in this context is how strong the government's legal positions really are.
Continue reading >>The Bill of Rights Bill and the damages of UK’s unilateralism
Just a fortnight before the resignation of Prime Minister Boris Johnson, the UK Government published its draft Bill of Rights Bill, which seeks to repeal and amend the 1998 Human Rights Act which incorporated the ECHR into UK law (section 1(1) of the Bill). The Bill is an expression of a broader trend emerging in UK policies to unilaterally amend (or even avoid) international law commitments.
Continue reading >>The People vs The President
Sri Lankan president Gotabhaya Rajapaksa finally resigned on 14 July 2022. The Speaker of the Sri Lankan Parliament confirmed the resignation on 15 July 2022. This is a tremendous victory for the people who have asserted their sovereignty through their daily activism. Recognizing the Sri Lankan crisis as a constitutional moment to introduce legal-political reforms is imperative to respond to the worst economic crisis the country has faced since independence and to engage with the diverse range of protestors within a constitutional-political framework.
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Holidays with smog
The Polish energy policy is seeing further controversies. The Minister of Climate and the Environment, Anna Moskwa, allowed poor quality coal to be sold for 60 days. This means that, up to 28 August, households are able to buy bituminous coal with a higher content of sulphur and mercury, as well as harmful mining waste, e.g. mining sludge. This decision is already causing considerable controversy not only among climate activists, but also among voivodship (local) authorities that are implementing so-called anti-smog resolutions.
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The Poverty of Militant Doctrinal Constitutionalism in the European Union
The rule of law crisis discussion is transforming the entire academic field of comparative constitutional law. Success is measured not in volumes of empirically based analysis or critical examination of existing legal practices but more and more in op-eds in which Poland, Hungary or the Commission should be chastised like unruly children in the most imaginative and entertaining way possible. It is possible because of the ultimately fatal grip of constitutional law scholarship and constitutional design in the EU which blurs the distinction between theoretical and more practical uses of constitutional concepts.
Continue reading >>Terra Incognita for the Fifth French Republic
Undoubtedly, 19 June 2022 will make a mark in the history of the Fifth Republic. Not only did it mark the end of the “absolute majority” of the re-elected President’s party in the Chamber of Deputies, but it also brought about an upheaval in the political and institutional habits in force since 1958. One might be inclined to think that this new configuration will be favorable to dialogue and cooperation between the institutions of the Fifth Republic. One might even assume that the National Assembly, now composed of multiple political forces, will once again be a place for debate. June 2022 will certainly have sounded the death knell of French “presidentialism”, but the concomitant advent of such a divided Assembly will perhaps not favor the emergence of a renewed parliamentarism.
Continue reading >>Hanging by a Thread
On June 20, 2022, Israel’s PM Naftali Bennet announced that he has decided, together with Yair Lapid, Israel’s foreign minister and Alternate Prime Minister, to disperse the Knesset. Bennet explained that the dissolvement was necessary to avoid “constitutional chaos”. But what was this pending “chaos”? What Bennet was referring to in such dramatic terms is the prospect of the expiration of the Emergency Regulations (Judea and Samaria—Adjudication of Offenses and Legal Assistance), which were set to expire as a result of the Knesset failing to pass a law extending them. What are these regulations? And how can the expiration of regulations, let alone emergency regulations, amount to a constitutional crisis?
Continue reading >>When National Laws and Human Rights Standards Are at Odds
The UK Government’s agenda to erode human rights and to disentangle the UK from its European partners has now been fully materialised. Soon after Brexit, the UK Government announced its intention to replace the Human Rights Act, which incorporates the rights set out in the ECHR into domestic law, with a British Bill of Rights. The replacement draft Bill of Rights is now being considered by Parliament. Although the draft Bill confirms that the catalogue of rights remains the same, it introduces many significant changes. The draft Bill will water down, not strengthen, human rights protection in the UK.
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The Selective Nature of a pan-European Willkommenskultur
Four months into Russia’s war on Ukraine, there has been a tremendous show of support for Ukrainians fleeing violence and the atrocities of war – in Europe and elsewhere in the world. As is well-known, European states have hammered out pragmatic administrative solutions to accommodate large numbers of incoming person, going to great lengths to provide for beneficial welfare arrangements. Against this backdrop, it may not be unreasonable to present the crisis in Ukraine as a tipping point for humanitarian protection more generally.
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Hungary, Poland and the “Community of Fate”
In February 2022, the ECJ delivered a ruling in cases brought by Hungary and Poland against the European Parliament and Council. Not only did the ruling uphold the regime of conditionality for the protection of the EU budget; it also entered into the domain of European constitutional identity. Instead of undermining the European commitment to the rule of law, Poland and Hungary may have inadvertently consolidated the place of rule of law in the heart of EU identity.
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Will the Commission Throw the Rule of Law Away in Hungary?
The Hungarian government is publicly saying that it is nearing a deal with the European Commission to unlock the Recovery Funds that have been withheld because the Commission has not yet approved Hungary’s plan for spending those funds. Apparently, Hungary has agreed to four conditions that will allow the €7bn worth of grants and about €8bn in low-interest loans to be approved. But if those are any indication of the price that the European Commission will extract for comprehensive violation of the rule of law, the European Commission is making a colossal mistake.
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Is Finland Joining the Backsliding Trend in Europe?
New laws have just been adopted by the Finnish parliament that would be extremely dangerous tools in the hands of a cynical government with a right-wing-populist and/or kleptocratic agenda. As the composition of the current Government is left-green-centre, some people will dismiss my concerns. The plain facts, however, give rise to worries: parliamentary elections will be held in April 2023, both large opposition parties, the populist True Finns and the Conservatives, effectively took ownership of the parliamentary consideration of the Bills in question, and the prevailing political rhetoric now is full of slogans that echo Donald Trump rather than the voices of human rights. There is good reason to be on high alert.
Continue reading >>Die AfD als Verdachtsfall
Nach dem Grundsatzurteil des Bundesverfassungsgerichts zum Bayerischen Verfassungsschutzgesetz werden aktuell Gesetzesnovellen der Verfassungsschutzgesetze des Bundes und der Länder vorbereitet. Die Reformen werden voraussichtlich auch die Regelungen über die heimlichen Beobachtungsmethoden des Verfassungsschutzes, wie etwa den Einsatz von V-Leuten, betreffen. Die Thematik der nachrichtendienstlichen Beobachtung erhält zusätzliche Relevanz, nachdem das Verwaltungsgericht Köln entschieden hat, dass die AfD vom Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz als Verdachtsfall eingestuft werden könne.
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For Whom The Bell Tolls
Less than three years ago, Boris Johnson led his party to their largest election victory since 1987. Today, his premiership is in ruins, his party has abandoned him, and he has resigned in disgrace. The political aspects of the United Kingdom’s constitution are often said to be founded on the belief that politicians are good chaps. In reality, this constitution, at least when it comes to issues of survival, is based on the maintenance of confidence. Once that is gone, so are you.
Continue reading >>Transgender Women Athlete Exclusion in Disguise
A heated debate about the participation of transgender and non-binary people in female competitions is on-going worldwide. Just last month, the International Swimming Federation adopted a new policy which prevents transgender women from participating in its female top-competitions. Without any possibility for the affected group of transgender women athletes to participate in FINA’s top-competitions, the policy is disproportionate and discriminatory, and has the potential to violate other human and children’s rights.
Continue reading >>A Reckless Decision
On Thursday, 30 June 2022, the Supreme Court of the United States issued its long-awaited ruling in West Virginia v. Environmental Protection Agency on the final day of the Court’s term. In a 6-3 decision, the conservative-majority Court held that the EPA lacks authority to require power plants to achieve the “best system of emissions reduction,” thereby hampering the United States’ ability to tackle climate change—decades after the government first learned of the crisis.
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Untying the Ties that (don’t) Bind
In his letter to MEP Daniel Freund of 17 June 2022, European Council President Charles Michel argued that neither he, as President, nor the European Council have the power to exclude democratically unaccountable representatives of a Member State from that institution. But President Michel’s apparent recourse to a literal reading of Article 15(2) TEU – which fails to consider its relationship with other provisions relating to the composition of the European Council – is not convincing.
Continue reading >>Guardian of the Amazon
On 1 July 2022, the Brazilian Federal Supreme Court (STF) issued a momentous judgment in what has been one of the most important climate litigation cases before the court. In its decision, the STF elevated international environmental law treaties, such as the Paris Agreement, to the status of international human rights treaties in the Brazilian constitutional system – with wide ranging implications at the domestic level.
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Ecuador’s June 2022 Multi-pronged Social Outburst
For 18 days in June, the Ecuadorian society has descended into chaos. What started as a strike led by indigenous communities mutated into a multi-pronged social outburst that threatened the constitutional order as a whole. While the core reason for the widespread discontent lies in the systematic exclusion of a vast majority of the Ecuadorian population from basic social systems, the resent crisis in Ecuador posts a more comprehensive alert.
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The Costs of Outsourcing
Last month the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) granted an urgent interim measure according to Rule 39 of the Rules of the Court in a case concerning an imminent removal of an asylum-seeker from the UK to Rwanda. The UK's policy of outsourcing sets another dangerous precedence when it comes to restricting territorial asylum and the basic rights of asylum seekers. It is expensive, contrary to international human rights obligations, has significant adverse effects on those affected, scratches the state´s reputation, and increases existing tensions with the ECtHR.
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The Italian Surname Saga
On May 31, 2022, the Italian Constitutional Court (ICC) finally rendered its much-awaited decision (ICC, decision no. 131/2022) about domestic legislation on surname attribution. The judgment deserves closer attention for two main reasons. Next to fostering gender equality, it also exemplifies the new role of the ICC within the Italian constitutional order.
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The Logic of Patriarchy
With two decisions, the highest court in the U.S. judicial system shed the mantle of law. In Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, the two-thirds majority of five male justices and one female justice of the Supreme Court declared the abortion right, vouchsafed in the legendary Roe v. Wade decision in 1973, to be moot and gave its blessing to Mississippi's abortion ban. Within just a week, the same majority, half appointed by Donald Trump, tore the controversial right to keep and bear arms from its dogmatic moorings in the Second Amendment. As overtly political measures, both rulings combine a preference for patriarchal society with a bonus for toxic masculinity. It remains to be asked how long the structurally minoritized women justices of the Court will participate in this legitimacy game
Continue reading >>Scottish Indyref 2
On Tuesday 28 June, First Minister Nicola Sturgeon addressed the Scottish Parliament about her plans for a second independence referendum. According to the proposed Bill, the referendum will take place on 19 October 2023. The announcement reopened the age-old debate about the ‘festering issue’ whether Holyrood does possess the power to organise such referendum without the explicit consent of Westminster.
Continue reading >>The Core of the European Public Space
Increasing the visibility of the constitutional fundamentals of the Union takes on existential importance in times of constitutional reckoning or, as some call it in more ominous terms, in times of “capitulation”. It is for that reason that art. 19(1) TEU should be amended to reflect the case law of the Court of Justice and thus to codify the core that binds the Member States to the discipline of the legal order.
Continue reading >>Trumping International Investment Law
An Award rendered on 16 June 2022 by a Stockholm-seated Arbitral Tribunal unleashed a foreshadowed earthquake regarding intra-EU investment protection disputes. The Tribunal declined jurisdiction based on the intra-EU nature of the dispute, which arose after two Danish companies had invested in Spanish photovoltaic power plants. The Award rendered under the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) and the arbitration rules of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (SCC) marks the first time an arbitral tribunal has denied its jurisdiction (ratione voluntatis) because of the intra-EU objection raised by the Respondent.
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The Ogiek Struggle for Recognition in Kenya
In a judgment handed down in Arusha on 23rd June 2022, the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) affirmed its 2017 ruling that the Ogiek people are indigenous to the Mau Forest and that they are its ancestral owners, granting them a collective title to be achieved through delimitation, demarcation and registration of their land. The reasoning by the Court will have a significant bearing on the struggles of other indigenous peoples seeking to secure their land and livelihoods.
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Europe Needs a Civil Society Strategy
In a number of EU countries, governments are squeezing civic space, rendering it increasingly hard for civil society to operate. A comprehensive strategic approach to partnering with civil societies would allow the EU to more effectively tackle growing illiberalism and ambivalence about democracy.
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Generation Action
Über Verzweiflung, Generationenversagen und Hoffnung.
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Courts and Cannabis Sativa for Medical Purposes in Brazil
The Brazilian Superior Court of Justice – not the Federal Supreme Court – had recently decided that planting and transporting cannabis sativa aiming at extracting oil for medical ends shall not be treated as a crime. Contrary to the recent allegations of judicial activism made by President Jair Bolsonaro against the Brazilian judiciary, the Superior Court of Justice ruling is a good example of a decision based on the 1988 Constitution, the statutory law referred to in the case and several other authorities contributions, which all helped to construct the court’s arguments, as this post will show.
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Russian Elites, Proxies, and Oligarchs – Make them Pay!
Russland und seine starken Männer sollen buchstäblich für die Kriegsschäden in der Ukraine zahlen. Die Kommission schlägt vor, die Durchsetzung von Sanktionen mit unionsweit einheitlichen Strafandrohungen zu stärken und auf diesem Weg elegant zugleich einen Rechtsgrund für die Einziehung involvierter Vermögenswerte zu schaffen. Diesem Vorhaben stehen ungeachtet seiner politischen Opportunität erhebliche sanktionstechnische, unionsrechtliche und vor allem strafrechtliche Bedenken entgegen, die erhebliche Zweifel an Zulässigkeit und Erfolgsaussichten nähren.
Continue reading >>Fundamental Rights at the Digital Border
We are witnessing the emergence of the EU’s ‘digital border’: an ecosystem of interoperable databases to expand the surveillance and control of the movement of third-country nationals. In this blog post, we discuss one of the latest additions to this ecosystem - the European Travel Information and Authorisation System, or ETIAS in short - and argue that the system as it is currently set up violates the right to data protection laid down in Article 8 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, especially in light of the CJEU’s PNR judgment earlier this week. In many ways, we consider ETIAS to be a test case for a much wider roll-out of such often AI-powered technologies in the field of border control.
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Governing the Memory of the Present
Putin’s Russia is a global champion of memory laws that fabricate the state’s perennial innocence and glory and make it a criminal offense to diverge from the state-sanctioned historical narratives. The state’s propaganda has also promoted symbols that convey support for or condoning of the Russia’s war, such as the “Z”, “V”, and St. George's ribbon. The emergence of these symbols in the public sphere has put militant democracy provisions existing in many European legal orders into the spotlight, but also propelled lawmakers in some states to adopt new provisions prohibiting the use of such symbols. We discuss the reaction mechanism in Lithuania, Germany, and Poland.
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A Directive altered beyond recognition
On 21 June 2022, the Court of Justice of the European Union rendered its decision in the preliminary ruling procedure on the fate of the PNR Directive. The Court had a chance to decisively answer one of the most crucial questions facing European security law: Is indiscriminate mass data retention for and the technology-induced analysis of ordinary human behavior compatible with fundamental rights? It instead opted for an enigmatic compromise creating a whole host of new questions. It does not change the fact that the PNR Directive survives – as a strange beast altered beyond recognition.
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Tackling Discrimination in Targeted Advertising
On 21 June Meta and the US Department for Housing and Urban Development released a legal settlement that will restrict Meta’s ability to offer those clients some of its core ad-targeting products. It resolves (for now) a long-running case over discriminatory targeting of housing adverts. Meta is now prohibited from using certain targeting tools in this context, and has promised new tools to ensure more representative targeting. This US lawsuit should be a wake-up call for European regulators, reminding them that taking systemic discrimination seriously requires proactive regulatory reform and enforcement. The relevant provisions of the Digital Services Act (DSA) are largely symbolic.
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Pregnancy Registry in Poland
In Poland and beyond, a media storm broke out in the beginning of June because of the so-called "pregnancy registry." The problem at the heart of the media storm is that if a woman decides to terminate her pregnancy, for example, abroad, it will be known because of the system's pregnancy data and prenatal test results. Nevertheless, it is difficult to judge this registry unequivocally, especially after hearing the arguments of both sides.
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Experimenting with European Democracy
The Conference on the Future of Europe came to an end on 9 May, with the presentation of a final report of 49 recommendations and 329 specific measures to the presidents of the three EU institutions. While it is unclear what the exact follow-up to the Conference will be, the upcoming Council Summit on 23-24 June will show whether a simple majority of Member States is open to starting the process for a Treaty change.
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Covering Up and Rewarding the Destruction of the Rule of Law One Milestone at a Time
Once upon a time, when still a candidate for President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen solemnly declared: “there can be no compromise when it comes to respecting the Rule of Law. There never will be.” As it is now clear, this was just Orwellian doublespeak.
Continue reading >>How the Philippines Could Overcome Its Deep Mistrust of Constitutional Reform
The Philippines has had three constitutions. Despite numerous attempts, the 1987 Constitution has not been amended since its ratification. Initiatives to change a constitution, and moves of resistance, are part and parcel of a constitutional democracy. Actually, the Philippines finds itself in a fortunate position, because the failure of past attempts at amending the 1987 Constitution can offer valuable lessons.
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The Rule of Law in a Reign of Terror
India is witnessing a spate of housing demolition used as a tool to inflict extrajudicial punishment for dissent. Over the past few months, the bulldozer has emerged as a powerful metaphor for the brute force of the state and the endless machinations of Hindu supremacists to flatten any difference or diversity they encounter. Tempting as it is, to think of the recent demolitions as a shocking new development, in fact the bulldozer has always been a significant determinant of the contours of space in India.
Continue reading >>The Role of Referenda in Orban’s Regime
Following the parliamentary elections and the national referendum in April 2022, the OSCE found that the legal framework was inadequate for the conduct of a democratic plebiscite. Even though the observers noted several shortcomings of the legal regulation and documented many serious anomalies of the electoral system, they failed to put their analysis in a broader political and legal context. The aim of this short piece is to briefly describe the role that the referenda play in Orbán’s regime.
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Pressure Drop
For years, we have been living in a toxic relationship with authoritarian populism. No wonder everyone's so exhausted.
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Druckabfall
Seit Jahren leben wir in einer toxischen Beziehung mit dem autoritären Populismus. Kein Wunder, dass wir alle so erschöpft sind.
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The UK’s anti-legal populism
Calls for UK withdrawal from the ECHR are raised at fairly regular intervals in certain quarters of the Conservative party, but this week various members of the Government, including the Prime Minister. Reason for this was an interim measure by the European Court of Human Rights that stopped a deportation flight to Rwanda. It was entirely predictable that calls for UK withdrawal from the ECHR would resurface. Less predictable for many, are the implications this would hold for the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement.
Continue reading >>British Bare Necessities
In the latest episode of the Brexit saga, the United Kingdom government has published the Northern Ireland Protocol ('NIP') Bill, by which it seeks to unilaterally disapply large parts of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland to the 2019 Withdrawal Agreement (‘WA’) concluded between the UK and the European Union. The British government has shared a summary of its legal position, seeking to justify the NIP Bill on the basis of the doctrine of necessity. However, this justification seems to be a literal, if unconvincing, attempt to make a virtue of necessity.
Continue reading >>Moving Beyond Token Participation
The concept of human rights due diligence was developed over the past decade as a way for companies to grapple with adverse human rights violations and impacts connected to their business practice, including within their value chains. In February of this year, the European Commission published a proposal for European Union-wide mandatory human rights due diligence for companies that fall under its scope. For such legislation to succeed in advancing the rights of the most affected and to lead to better human rights outcomes for rights-holders, it is crucial to anchor such laws and regulations with not only the perspective of rights-holders but their ongoing involvement. To do otherwise would miss an invaluable opportunity to improve the landscape of business and human rights to center rights-holders in the years to come.
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Serbia on Hold
Since 3 April 2022, when elections at all levels were held, Serbia has been on hold. Two months after the elections, only the President of Serbia has begun to serve his regular mandate, while the official results of the parliamentary elections are yet to be proclaimed, the new composition of the National Assembly is yet to be convened, and the new government is yet to be formed. Russia’s aggression against Ukraine, which occurred at the beginning of the election campaign, added to the already tense political situation.
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Folgt dem Geld
Warum wir aufhören sollten, von "Euroskeptikern" zu reden
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How the Data Retention Legislation Led to a National Constitutional Crisis in Portugal
Some weeks ago, the Portuguese Constitutional Court (PCC) triggered a heated political debate on the need to amend the Constitution to grant criminal investigative authorities access to metadata on personal communications. Whilst disagreements between the political branches and the constitutional jurisdiction are common, this conflict is located at a wider critical juncture that intersects EU and national constitutional law, the CJEU, the domestic constitutional court, and ordinary courts.
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Censuring von der Leyen’s Capitulation on the Rule of Law
The spectre of a motion of censure is looming over the von der Leyen Commission. While this rather extraordinary, perhaps desperate, measure appears unlikely to attain the required number of signatures to be tabled – and even less likely to be adopted by the European Parliament –, this initiative deserves some scrutiny. Perhaps even some praise by those who still believe in the primacy of law over power.
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Compensation Without Recognition
The German-Italian dispute over civil liability for Germany’s crimes during World War II has developed into a veritable saga. This saga, however, might come to an end soon. By passing the Decree-Law of 30 April 2022, No. 36, the Italian government has temporarily blocked the distraint of properties of Germany located in Rome. Furthermore, the Decree-Law has established a fund through which the Italian government aims to definitively close the issue by paying compensation to the victims in place of Germany. Even if in the future Germany decides to contribute to those compensations, such a solution would fail to acknowledge that historical justice is not just about financial compensation. It is about listening and recognition.